Introduction to Biopsychology

Questions and Answers

What percentage of body energy does the brain consume?

30%

10%

15%

25% (correct)

What is the primary focus of biopsychology?

The study of behaviour

The study of brain structure

The study of the biology of behaviour (correct)

The study of cognitive functions

Who is credited with writing 'The Organization of Behaviour' in 1949?

Dr. D.O. Hebb (correct)

Dr. B.F. Skinner

Dr. Sigmund Freud

Dr. Jean Piaget

What is the term for the study of the nervous system?

Neuroscience Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a division of biopsychology?

Sociology Signup and view all the answers

How do neurons communicate with each other?

Through both electrical and chemical signals Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the study of the biology of behaviour?

Biopsychology Signup and view all the answers

What is Dr. D.O. Hebb's contribution to biopsychology?

He disagreed with the prevailing understanding of the complexity of brain functions Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the nerve that has only 1 pair?

Coccygeal nerve Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of the grey matter in the spinal cord?

Unmyelinated interneurons and cell bodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the dorsal route in spinal nerves?

Composed of sensory neurons Signup and view all the answers

How many pairs of Cranial nerves are there?

12 Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of spinal nerves?

Both sensory and motor on both sides of the spine Signup and view all the answers

What surrounds the grey matter in the spinal cord?

White matter Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of DNA?

To store genetic information for the production of proteins Signup and view all the answers

What are the building blocks of DNA?

Nucleotide bases Signup and view all the answers

How many types of nucleotide bases are found in DNA?

4 Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the nitrogenous bases of the two DNA strands?

They are complementary Signup and view all the answers

What is the central dogma of molecular biology?

The code in DNA is used to make proteins Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of fertilization in terms of chromosome number?

The number of chromosomes doubles Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of genetic expression?

To exhibit the traits of an organism Signup and view all the answers

What are the monomers of proteins?

Amino acids Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of neurons in the dorsal horn of the grey matter?

They are unipolar with only 1 extension Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system do ventral route neurons belong to?

Both somatic and autonomic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What develops into the nervous system in an embryo?

A fluid-filled tube called the neural tube Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is responsible for arousal, sleep, attention, movement, muscle tone, and cardiac circulatory and respiratory reflexes?

Medulla Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is a sensory-motor structure that helps with precise movements?

Cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the reticular formation in the brain?

To modulate arousal, sleep, and attention Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain connects the brain with the rest of the body?

Pons Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of neurons that contact skeletal muscles?

They are motor neurons Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the neural tube develops into the forebrain?

Telencephalon Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the tracts in the medulla?

To carry information between the brain and the body Signup and view all the answers

What is an evidence that supports evolution?

The similarity in structure among diverse living species Signup and view all the answers

What is the main mechanism of evolution?

Natural selection Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of social dominance among male members of a species?

The most dominant male will populate the most Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of social dominance among female members of a species?

The dominant female will maintain access to productive food foraging areas Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of courtship displays?

To attract a mate Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of the evolution of human brain?

The absolute size of the brain Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of natural selection?

The adaptation of a species to its environment Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of evolution?

It occurs over millions of years Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason why larger organisms need a greater amount of neural tissue?

To control their larger bodies Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of their body weight is the brain in humans?

2.3% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the cerebrum?

Enabling complex, higher order cognitive and executive functions Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the physical characteristics of a trait?

Phenotype Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of crossing a true-breeding line with a recessive trait?

A dominant trait is observed in ¾ of the offspring and a recessive trait in ¼ Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the brain in elephants compared to humans?

It is smaller in proportion to their body weight Signup and view all the answers

What did Charles Darwin not understand about genetics?

How genes were passed across generations Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the size of the cerebrum and the brainstem?

The cerebrum grows at a faster rate than the brainstem Signup and view all the answers

What is the directionality of the term 'Dorsal' in the nervous system?

Towards the surface of the back OR top of the head Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a section of the CNS that intersects the frontal section of the brain, right in the middle?

Sagittal plane Signup and view all the answers

How many groups of spinal nerves are there?

5 Signup and view all the answers

What is the directionality of the term 'Proximal' in the nervous system?

Close to the CNS Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a section of the CNS that is parallel to the ground?

Horizontal plane Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the direction towards the nose in the nervous system?

Anterior Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of motor cranial nerves in the autonomic nervous system?

Only part of the parasympathetic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of cranial nerves?

To bring in sensory information to the brain and take out motor signals to move muscles in the head Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the sub-arachnoid space?

To house large blood vessels and cerebral spinal fluid Signup and view all the answers

How many ventricles are found in the brain?

4 Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the meninges?

To protect the CNS Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of second stage neurons?

They have a shorter travel distance Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of breeding maze bright rats with other maze bright rats over 21 generations?

Maze bright offspring performed better at the maze Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of rearing maze bright/dull rats with parents of the opposite skill than their biological parents?

To control for the effects of genetics on maze performance Signup and view all the answers

What was the finding regarding the performance of maze dull rats in enriched environments compared to impoverished environments?

Maze dull rats performed better in enriched environments Signup and view all the answers

What can be concluded about the role of experience and environment in maze performance?

Experience and environment have a significant impact on maze performance Signup and view all the answers

What was the reason for comparing maze dull rats reared in enriched and impoverished environments?

To investigate the impact of experience and environment on maze performance Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of breeding maze dull rats with other maze dull rats over 21 generations?

Maze dull offspring performed worse at the maze Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the superior colliculi?

Visual-motor function, directing orientation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the periaqueductal grey?

Mediates the pain-reducing effects of opioids Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the red nucleus?

Sensory-motor function Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the thalamus?

Sensory relay nuclei Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Regulates motivated behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

Releases hormones on command of the hypothalamus Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the optic chiasm?

The place where some of the visual pathways cross over from one eye to the other side of the brain Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

Vision Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

Analyzing bodily sensations and perceptions of locations of sensations in relation to other external objects in the environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

High-order, complex cognitive functions Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the genetic makeup that is not physically visible?

Genotype Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a pair of alleles that are different?

Heterozygous alleles Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of DNA in the nucleus?

To code for the traits we express Signup and view all the answers

How many chromosomes do humans have?

23 Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of cell division?

Two identical cells with the same genetic material Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the study of the biology of behaviour?

Biopsychology Signup and view all the answers

What is the location of the lumbar and thoracic spinal levels where sympathetic nerves leave?

Spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of sympathetic nerves in threatening situations?

To stimulate, organize, and mobilize energy resources Signup and view all the answers

Where do parasympathetic nerves leave the CNS from?

From the brain and the bottom level of the spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the travel distance of first and second stage neurons in the sympathetic system?

Second stage travel longer distances Signup and view all the answers

What is a common function of both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves?

Stimulation of energy resources Signup and view all the answers

Where are the first stage neurons located in the sympathetic system?

Close to the spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of both first and second stage neurons?

They are involved in the transmission of signals to internal organs Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of sympathetic nerves in psychological arousal?

They increase arousal Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of cranial nerves?

To bring in sensory information to the brain and take out motor signals to move muscles in the head Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of motor cranial nerves in the autonomic nervous system?

Only part of the parasympathetic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the meninges?

To protect the CNS Signup and view all the answers

What is located between the arachnoid and pia mater in the meninges?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

How many ventricles are present in the CNS?

4 Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid?

To provide support and cushioning to the brain Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the parametal cells in the neocortex?

To integrate information from multiple layers Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the stellate cells in the neocortex?

They have short axons and are mainly interneurons Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of neurons in the dorsal horn of the grey matter?

Unipolar with only 1 extension Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the columnar organization in the neocortex?

To create mini-circuits with parameter and stellate cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the neurons in the ventral horn of the grey matter?

They are motor neurons that cause skeletal muscles to contract Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the part of the neural tube that develops into the forebrain?

Telencephalon Signup and view all the answers

What is the benefit of the wrinkled structure of the cerebral cortex?

It allows for a larger cortical area without increasing the size of the cranium Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the hippocampus?

Memory formation and consolidation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the reticular formation in the brain?

It helps with the regulation of sleep and arousal Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the neurons in the ventral route?

Multipolar with multiple extensions Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the neocortex in terms of layers?

The size and density of cell bodies vary across layers Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the tracts in the medulla?

They carry information between the brain and body Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the bumps on the surface of the cerebral cortex?

Gyri Signup and view all the answers

What is the organization of the neocortex referred to as?

Columnar organization Signup and view all the answers

What is the part of the brain that is responsible for arousal, sleep, attention, movement, muscle tone, and cardiac circulatory and respiratory reflexes?

Medulla Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the pons?

It connects the brain with the rest of the body Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the cerebellum?

It is a sensory-motor structure Signup and view all the answers

What is the part of the neural tube that develops into the spinal cord?

Spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of using humans in biopsychology research?

The ability to use the human brain Signup and view all the answers

Why do researchers use nonhuman subjects in biopsychology research?

Because they enable researchers to compare behavior between species with different brain structures Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of experiments in biopsychology research?

They require random assignment of subjects Signup and view all the answers

What is the process that produces gametes, the sex cells?

Meiosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of case studies in biopsychology research?

A single or a very few number of participants Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of applied research in biopsychology?

To have an application in real life Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of fertilization in terms of chromosome number?

The same number of chromosomes as the parent cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason for genetic diversity in offspring?

Random allocation of chromosomes during meiosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the key factor that influences the expression of genes, according to the biopsychology working model?

Unique life experiences Signup and view all the answers

During meiosis, what happens to the chromosomes?

They exchange genetic material with one another Signup and view all the answers

What is the main evidence that supports Darwin's theory of evolution?

The evolution of fossils across progressively higher geological layers Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of meiosis II?

Four haploid cells that contain half the amount of genetic material as the parent cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of evolution, according to Darwin's theory?

Natural selection Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the chromosomes after meiosis II?

They are randomly arranged in the daughter cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the process that occurs after the zygote forms?

Mitosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of genetic recombination during meiosis?

To increase genetic diversity Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which the sequence of nucleotide bases is translated into a sequence of amino acids?

Translation Signup and view all the answers

What is the study of the causes of differences in gene expression without changes to the DNA sequence?

Epigenetics Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of DNA methylation on gene expression?

It can either increase or decrease gene expression Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of histones in the context of epigenetics?

They are large protein molecules around which DNA is coiled Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the maze study in the context of epigenetics?

It shows that life experiences can affect gene expression Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between genetics and epigenetics?

Genetics studies gene sequence, while epigenetics studies gene expression Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ribosomes in the process of translation?

They read the mRNA and add amino acids Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of genetic recombination and random allocation during meiosis?

It leads to differences in gene expression in offspring Signup and view all the answers

What prevents the flow of toxic substances from the blood to the brain?

The tight packing of cells in the blood vessels that supply the brain Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in neurons?

Site of protein synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of neuron that has a short or no axon at all?

Multipolar interneuron Signup and view all the answers

What direction does the term 'Anterior' refer to in the nervous system?

Towards the nose Signup and view all the answers

What type of section is a 'midsagittal section' in the CNS?

Sagittal plane Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of oligodendrocytes in the CNS?

Myelination of axons Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the collective axons of neurons in the PNS?

Nerve Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the direction towards the midline of the spine in the nervous system?

Medial Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of astrocytes in the CNS?

Covering the blood vessels that supply the CNS Signup and view all the answers

How many groups of spinal nerves are there in the spinal cord?

5 Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the cell bodies of a group of neurons in the same location in the CNS?

Nuclei Signup and view all the answers

What is the direction towards the surface of the chest or bottom of the head in the nervous system?

Ventral Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the direction 'close to the CNS' in the nervous system?

Proximal Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the microtubules in neurons?

Used to transport vesicles Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of neuron that has two extensions from the cell body?

Bipolar neuron Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Golgi complex in neurons?

Packaging molecules into vesicles Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the genetic makeup that is not physically seen?

Genotype Signup and view all the answers

What is the number of chromosomes found in humans?

23 Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the situation where the two alleles for a trait are different?

Heterozygous Signup and view all the answers

What is the basic building block of all living organisms?

Cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the long strands of genetic material that are coiled and packaged into chromosomes?

DNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of cell division?

Two identical cells with the same genetic material Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of using humans in biopsychology research?

We can use the human brain. Signup and view all the answers

Why do researchers use nonhuman subjects in biopsychology research?

To perform experimental procedures that cannot be performed on humans. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key characteristic of true experiments in biopsychology research?

Random assignment of participants to groups. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of pure research in biopsychology?

To understand the underlying mechanisms of behavior and cognition. Signup and view all the answers

What is the biopsychology working model of behavior?

Behavior is a product of interaction between genes, unique experiences, and the individual's perception of their life situations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why larger organisms need a greater amount of neural tissue?

To control their larger bodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the main contribution of Darwin's theory of evolution to the field of biopsychology?

The concept of natural selection and adaptation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of case studies in biopsychology research?

They focus on a single participant or a small group of participants. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the brainstem?

Lower order subconscious and reflexive functions Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between experiments and quasi-experiments in biopsychology research?

Experiments involve random assignment, while quasi-experiments do not. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the physical characteristics of a trait?

Phenotype Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the brain in elephants compared to humans?

It makes up a smaller percentage of their body weight Signup and view all the answers

What did Charles Darwin not understand about genetics?

How genes were passed across generations Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the size of the cerebrum and the brainstem?

The cerebrum increases in size at a faster rate than the brainstem Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of crossing a true-breeding line with a recessive trait?

The dominant trait is expressed ¾ of the time Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the brainstem in humans?

Regulating heart rate and respiration Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of DNA?

To store genetic information Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the building blocks of proteins?

Amino acids Signup and view all the answers

How many pairs of chromosomes are found in non-gamete cells?

46 Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the nitrogenous bases of the two DNA strands?

Adenine compliments thymine Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of fertilization in terms of chromosome number?

The number of chromosomes doubles Signup and view all the answers

What is the central dogma of molecular biology?

The code in DNA is used to make proteins Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of using the genetic code to produce proteins?

Gene expression Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure of DNA?

Two polymer chains intertwined around each other Signup and view all the answers

How many pairs of Thoracic nerves are there in the human body?

12 pairs Signup and view all the answers

What is the main component of the white matter in the spinal cord?

Myelinated axons Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the ventral route in spinal nerves?

Composed of motor neurons Signup and view all the answers

How many pairs of Lumbar nerves are there in the human body?

5 pairs Signup and view all the answers

What is the shape of the grey matter in the spinal cord?

H-shaped Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of spinal nerves in terms of their function?

Both sensory and motor Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Introduction to Biopsychology

Brain consumes 25% of body energy while making up only 2% of body weight
Brain communicates via neurons using electrical and chemical signals, with infinite possible signal paths
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system, including biopsychology, which focuses on how the brain generates behavior and cognitive functions

The Brain and Behavior

Biopsychology is a rapidly growing field that combines psychology (study of behavior) and biology (study of biological processes)
Dr. D.O. Hebb's work, "The Organization of Behaviour" (1949), was influential in integrating physiological and chemical processes with cognitive functions

Divisions of Biopsychology

Physiological psychology
Psychopharmacology
Neuropsychology
Psychophysiology
Cognitive neuroscience
Comparative psychology
These divisions often overlap, suggesting that organisms have evolved from a common ancestor

Evolution and Behavior

Natural selection drives evolution, where heritable traits that increase survival chances are more likely to be passed on
Behaviors that increase reproductive success, such as finding food, defending young, and protecting oneself, are more likely to be selected
Social dominance among male and female members of a species can lead to increased reproductive success
Courtship displays can lead to reproductive success, and changes in courtship behavior can lead to reproductive barriers

Evolution of Human Brain

Scientists study the evolution of absolute brain size, which was once thought to be directly related to intelligence
The genetic code, stored in DNA, contains the instructions for protein production
DNA is a polymer molecule made up of nucleotide bases, with four different types (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine)

DNA Structure and Function

DNA is a double-helix molecule with two intertwined strands of nucleotide bases
The sequence of nucleotide bases constitutes the genetic code
Non-gamete cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, while gamete cells have 23 single chromosomes
After fertilization, the number of chromosomes doubles

Genetic Expression

Genetic code needs to be expressed for organisms to exhibit their traits
Gene expression involves the synthesis of proteins, where the DNA code is used to make proteins
Proteins are polymers made up of individual amino acid monomers

Nervous System Structure and Function

The spinal cord has an H-shaped grey matter, surrounded by white matter
Spinal nerves are connected to each side of the spinal cord and are divided into dorsal and ventral routes
Dorsal routes are composed of sensory neurons, while ventral routes are composed of motor neurons
The neural tube is an embryo part that develops into the nervous system, with three swellings that develop into four major divisions of the CNS: forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord

Brain Structure and Function

Across species, humans do not have the largest brain; larger organisms need a greater amount of neural tissue to control their larger bodies.
The weight of the brain with respect to the weight of the entire body as a percentage is 2.3% for humans and 0.2% for elephants.
The cerebrum is responsible for complex, higher-order cognitive and executive functions (learning, perception, motivation, decision-making), and its size increases at a greater rate over evolution than that of the brainstem.

Mendelian Genetics

Charles Darwin did not understand what caused members within the same species to be different from each other or how genes were passed across generations from parent to child.
Gregor Mendel studied dichotomous traits of seeds and discovered that one trait would be dominant, and one would be recessive.
Mendel created a true-breeding line and cross-bred plants to observe the traits, finding that the dominant trait is observed ¾ of the time and the recessive trait is observed ¼ of the time.
Mendel's work showed that what we see is the "phenotype" of the trait.

Brain Development and Environment

In a study on maze-bright and maze-dull rats, the rats were bred over 21 generations, and the outcome showed that maze-bright offspring were better at the maze, and maze-dull offspring were worse at the maze.
To control for effects, maze-bright/dull rats were reared with parents of the opposite skill than their biological parents, and the results showed that the rats still performed similarly to their biological parents.
The study found that experience and environment do matter, as the maze-dull rats made more errors than the bright rats only if they were reared in an impoverished environment.
The dull rats did equally well as the bright rats only if both groups were reared in enriched environments.

Nervous System

Second-stage neurons have a shorter travel distance, which conserves energy and is involved in psychological relaxation.
Cranial nerves travel from the brain and consist of 24 nerves, 12 of which leave the right side and 12 of which leave the left side.
Cranial nerves bring in sensory information to the brain (sensory cranial nerves) or take out motor signals to move muscles in the head (motor nerves).
Motor cranial nerves in the autonomic nervous system are only part of the parasympathetic nervous system.

Meninges and Ventricles

Meninges protect the CNS and consist of dura, arachnoid, and pia mater, located inside the skull.
The sub-arachnoid space between the arachnoid and pia mater has large blood vessels and cerebral spinal fluid.
Ventricles are interconnected series of chambers, four in total, and provide support and cushioning to the brain.
Ventricles are part of the blood-brain barrier and constrict or dilate blood vessels in the CNS.

Directionality in the Nervous System

The nervous system has a 3-axis system of directionality, with anterior towards the nose, posterior towards the tail end, dorsal towards the surface of the back or top of the head, ventral towards the surface of the chest or bottom of the head, medial towards the midline of the spine, and lateral away from the midline of the spine.
Proximal refers to structures close to the CNS, and distal refers to structures far from the CNS.
The CNS can be sectioned in three planes: horizontal plane (transverse section), frontal plane (coronal section), and sagittal plane (midsagittal section).

Spinal Cord and Brain

The spinal cord and brain have different groups of axons (nerves) that enter the spinal cord at multiple places.
There are 5 groups of 31 spinal nerves.

Mesencephalon

The mesencephalon is the midbrain, which consists of the dorsal tectum and the ventral tegmentum.
The tectum has two pairs of swellings on the dorsal surface: the superior colliculi, involved in visual-motor function and directing orientation, and the inferior colliculi, involved in auditory function.
The ventral tegmentum has the periaqueductal grey, which mediates the pain-reducing effects of opioids, and the red nucleus and substantia nigra, both involved in sensory-motor function.

Diencephalon

The diencephalon consists of the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
The thalamus is made of two lobes, one in each hemisphere, and is connected to each other by an intermediate mass.
The thalamus has sensory relay nuclei, which receive information from sensory receptors and relay it to the appropriate sensory cortices, and non-sensory relay nuclei, which receive information from the cerebral cortex and relay it within the cerebral cortex.
The hypothalamus is located below the anterior component of the thalamus and regulates motivated behaviors, such as eating, sleeping, and sex, by regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.

Telencephalon

The telencephalon consists of the cerebral cortex, which has four major lobes: the occipital lobe, involved in vision, the parietal lobe, involved in analyzing bodily sensations and perceptions of locations, the temporal lobe, involved in hearing, language, and certain types of memory, and the frontal lobe, involved in motor function, decision-making, and complex cognitive functions.
The neocortex, which is 90% of the cerebral cortex, is a result of recent evolution and is responsible for higher-order cognitive functions.

Genetics and Genotype

A person's genetic makeup that we don't physically see is their "genotype".
4 central ideas from Mendel's work:
- Each dichotomous trait is controlled by genes.
- Two genes (alleles) control each dichotomous trait.
- Heterozygous means the two alleles for a trait are different, while homozygous means they are identical.
- One gene is dominant, and the other is recessive.

Chromosomes

A cell is the basic building block of life and contains the nucleus, which holds DNA (genetic material).
DNA is coiled and packaged into chromosomes.
Humans have 23 chromosomes, each with a pair having one of the two alleles in the same location.
Cell division produces two identical cells from a single cell, with the same genetic material.

Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system stimulates, organizes, and mobilizes energy resources in threatening situations, and is involved in psychological arousal.
The parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and is involved in psychological relaxation.
Cranial nerves bring in sensory information to the brain (sensory cranial nerves) or take out motor signals to move muscles in the head (motor nerves).
Motor cranial nerves in the autonomic nervous system are only part of the parasympathetic nervous system.

Meninges

Meninges protect the CNS.
The three meninges (dura, arachnoid, and pia mater) are located inside the skull.
The sub-arachnoid space contains large blood vessels and cerebral spinal fluid.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Ventricles are interconnected series of chambers (4 in total) that provide support and cushioning to the brain.
The ventricles are unipolar with only one extension.
Ventral routes contain motor neurons (efferent) that are part of the somatic and autonomic nervous system.

Neural Tube

The neural tube is a fluid-filled tube that develops into the nervous system.
It has three swellings that develop into four major divisions of the CNS: forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord.

Brain Divisions

Forebrain: telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres) and diencephalon.
Midbrain: mesencephalon.
Hindbrain: metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and myelencephalon (medulla).

Myelencephalon and Metencephalon

Myelencephalon: medulla, with tracts carrying info between brain and body, and a network of tracts (reticular formation) that stretch from the posterior end to the anterior end of the midbrain.
Metencephalon: pons and cerebellum.
Cerebellum: sensory-motor structure that helps with precise movements and adapting to changes in the environment.

Neocortex

The neocortex has different types of cells, including parametal cells (multipolar neurons with a parameter shape) and stellate cells (shaped like stars, mainly interneurons).
The neocortex has differences in layer thickness, cell body size, and density, and relative proportions of parameter and stellate cells.
The neocortex has a columnar organization due to vertical connections across layers.
The neocortex has a wrinkly structure with folds, increasing cortical area without increasing the size of the cranium.

Old Cortex Structure

The hippocampus is located on the medial edge of the cerebral cortex, with three layers, and is involved in memory function.
The hippocampus has a wrinkly structure with folds.

Research Approach to Biopsychology

Involves humans and animals, where humans are participants and animals are subjects.
The main advantage of using humans is the ability to use the human brain.
Nonhuman subjects are used because they allow for experimental procedures that cannot be performed on humans, and their brains are similar to human brains.

Types of Experiments

True experiments involve random assignment and allow for the study of cause and effect relationships.
Non-experiments include quasi-experiments and case studies, which have low generalizability.
Quasi-experiments do not have random assignment, and case studies focus on a single or few participants.

Research Goals

Research can be pure (conducted out of curiosity) or applied (conducted for real-life application).
Translational research combines pure and applied research.

Model of Biology of Behavior

Biopsychology working model: behavior is a product of interaction between genes, unique experiences, and the individual's perception of their life situation.
Genes are influenced by evolution and express traits that maximize survival.
Unique life experiences modify the expression of genes.
The way we behave in an environment is a result of the interaction between our unique neural makeup and our perception of the situation.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Published in "The Origin of Species" in 1859.
Three types of evidence support the theory:
The evolution of fossils across progressively higher geological layers.
Chromosome replication and meiosis.
Genetic diversity in offspring.

Genetics

Chromosome replication: DNA replication → cell division (mitosis) → two diploid cells with the same amount of genetic material as the parent cell.
Meiosis: produces gametes, the sex cells, with half the amount of genetic material as the parent cell.
Gamete fertilization: 23 single chromosomes from the egg cell + 23 single chromosomes from the sperm cell → non-gamete cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes (a zygote forms).

Cause of Genetic Diversity in Offspring

Random allocation: after meiosis II, chromosomes need to align along the equator, and the side they align on is random, increasing the chances of producing a daughter cell with genetic diversity.
Genetic recombination: during meiosis, chromosomes exchange genetic material, increasing the chances of producing a daughter cell that is different from the parent cell.

Epigenetics

Epigenetics is the study of causes in differences in gene expression other than changes to the gene sequence of DNA.
Life experiences can affect gene expression through:
- DNA methylation: attachment of a methyl group to the DNA nucleotide base, increasing or decreasing gene expression.
- Histone remodeling: changing the shape of histone proteins, which can increase or decrease gene expression.

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The blood-brain barrier prevents the flow of toxic substances from the blood to the brain.
The barrier is composed of tightly packed cells that make up the walls of the blood vessels that supply the blood system.

Neurons and Glial Cells

Neurons have a membrane with embedded proteins, dendrites, a cell body, axon, and synapse.
Glial cells include:
- Oligodendrocytes (CNS only): myelinate axons of multiple neurons.
- Schwann cells (PNS only): myelinate a part of an axon of only one neuron.
- Microglial cells: respond to injury or disease.
- Astrocytes: largest glial cells, part of the blood-brain barrier, constrict or dilate blood vessels, and make contact with neurons.

Directionality in the Nervous System

3-axis system of directionality:
- Anterior → towards the nose, Posterior → towards the tail end.
- Dorsal → towards the surface of the back OR top of the head, Ventral → towards the surface of the chest OR bottom of the head.
- Medial → towards the midline of the spine, Lateral → away from the midline of the spine.
Proximal → close to the CNS, Distal → far from the CNS.
Sections of the CNS:
- Horizontal plane/transverse section.
- Frontal plane/coronal section.
- Sagittal plane → intersects the frontal section of the brain, right in the middle (midsagittal section).

Research Approach to Biopsychology

Biopsychology research involves humans and animals, with humans being participants and animals being subjects.
The main advantage of using humans is that we can study the human brain, while using animals allows for experimental procedures that cannot be performed on humans.
Experiments in biopsychology involve true experiments or paired experiments, which require random assignment and study the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable.
Non-experiments include quasi-experiments and case studies, which cannot have random assignment and provide a more in-depth picture with low generalizability.

Model of Biology of Behaviour

The biopsychology working model states that behaviour is a product of interaction between genes, unique experiences, and the individual's perception of their life situations.
Genes are influenced by evolution and express traits that maximize our ability to survive, and are modified by unique life experiences.
Behaviour is a result of the interaction between our unique neural makeup and our perception of the situation.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Published in "The Origin of Species" in 1859, the theory of evolution is the single most influential theory in the biological sciences.
Three types of evidence support the theory: fossils, brain size, and brain structure.
Humans have a brain size of 2.3% of their body weight, compared to 0.2% for elephants.

Mendelian Genetics

Charles Darwin did not understand how genes were passed across generations or what caused differences within species.
Gregor Mendel studied dichotomous traits and discovered that one trait is dominant, while the other is recessive.
Mendel's work led to four central ideas: each trait is controlled by genes, two genes (alleles) control each trait, one gene is dominant, and one allele is inherited from each parent.

Chromosomes

A cell is the basic building block of life and contains the nucleus, which contains DNA.
DNA is coiled and packaged into chromosomes, with humans having 23 chromosomes.
Each chromosome has a pair with one allele in the same location that controls dichotomous traits.
Cell division produces two identical cells with the same genetic material as the parent cell.

DNA

DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the code for the production of proteins.
DNA is a polymer molecule made up of nucleotide bases, with four different types: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
The sequence of these bases constitutes the genetic code.

Genetic Expression

Genetic code needs to be expressed for organisms to exhibit their traits.
Gene expression involves the synthesis of proteins, which are polymers made up of amino acids.
The central dogma of molecular biology states that the code in DNA is used to make proteins.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord has an H-shaped grey matter made up of unmyelinated interneurons and cell bodies.
White matter surrounds the grey matter, made up of myelinated axons.
Spinal nerves are connected to each side of the spinal cord, entering on their respective sides.
Each nerve is divided into two routes: dorsal and ventral routes.

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Description

Explore the basics of biopsychology, including the brain's energy consumption, communication methods, and the intersection of psychology and neuroscience. Learn how the brain generates behavior and cognitive functions.