Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211 MID2
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Questions and Answers

What condition is characterized by the absence of the blue cone opsin?

  • Achromatopsia
  • Deuteranopia
  • Protanopia
  • Tritanopia (correct)

    • Which type of color vision deficiency involves the absence of the red cone opsin?

  • Deuteranopia
  • Protanopia (correct)
  • Tritanopia
  • Normal Vision

    • What is the genetic inheritance pattern of Protanopia?

  • X-linked recessive (correct)
  • Mitochondrial inheritance
  • Autosomal dominant
  • Autosomal recessive

    • How does visual acuity remain normal in Deuteranopia?

    <p>Green cone cells compensate by using the red cone opsin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true color blindness known as?

    <p>Achromatopsia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which photoreceptor cells are involved in detecting visible light wavelengths?

    <p>1 rod cell and 3 cone cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of vision deficiency involves a simple mutation of the green cone opsin?

    <p>Deuteranopia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What wavelength range is classified as visible light?

    <p>380 to 760 nm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes the perception of yellow when red and green light are combined?

    <p>The brain perceives a mixture of red and green wavelengths as yellow.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cone type has the highest activation when perceiving orange light at 610 nm?

    <p>Red cones at 75% activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason green light may appear brighter than red or blue light at the same intensity?

    <p>Green cone opsins have higher sensitivity to light.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do yellow, magenta, and cyan pigments do in terms of light absorption?

    <p>They only absorb one color, reflecting the others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is red paint not considered a primary paint color?

    <p>It absorbs both blue and green light.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In trichromatic vision, how are colors identified?

    <p>By the ratio of activities across the three cone cell types.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would likely happen if all three types of cone cells are equally activated?

    <p>Perception of grey or neutral colors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main challenge when mixing different paint colors?

    <p>It absorbs all colors, leading towards black.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of Protanopia?

    <p>Absence of the red cone opsin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If an individual has Deuteranopia, which opsin is absent?

    <p>Green cone opsin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the absence of red cone opsin affect visual acuity in individuals with Protanopia?

    <p>Visual acuity is normal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What color vision deficiency is characterized by the absence of the green cone opsin?

    <p>Deuteranopia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of inheritance, which gender is predominantly affected by color vision deficiencies such as Protanopia and Deuteranopia?

    <p>Males are predominantly affected</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does a saturation of 0% have on color perception?

    <p>Images will appear in grayscale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do mutations in the cone opsins generally affect color vision?

    <p>They can cause less pronounced deficits in color vision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dimension of color perception does saturation specifically relate to?

    <p>Purity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to ON bipolar cells in the dark?

    <p>They are hyperpolarized and do not release glutamate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do horizontal cells affect the response of a dimly lit center photoreceptor cell?

    <p>They depolarize the axon terminals of the center cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the function of horizontal cells?

    <p>They interconnect neighboring photoreceptor cells to regulate glutamate release.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)?

    <p>They are typical neurons with normal action potentials.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do photoreceptor cells respond to light conditions?

    <p>They release less glutamate in the dark.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when an ON bipolar cell detects light?

    <p>It releases more neurotransmitter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which membrane potential corresponds to an OFF bipolar cell in darkness?

    <p>-60 mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the response of retinal ganglion cells when light is detected in the center of their receptive field?

    <p>They produce action potentials.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about bipolar cell receptive fields is correct?

    <p>They utilize a 'center-surround' organization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the membrane potential change for ON bipolar cells in response to a photoreceptor detecting darkness?

    <p>It moves to -75 mV.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of horizontal cells on the bipolar cell receptive fields?

    <p>They produce a 'center-surround' organization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the neurotransmitter release of an OFF bipolar cell when an upstream photoreceptor detects light?

    <p>It releases less neurotransmitter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What pattern of neurotransmitter release occurs for an ON bipolar cell at a membrane potential of -45 mV?

    <p>Neurotransmitter release increases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the resting membrane potential of photoreceptor cells in complete darkness?

    <p>-40</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do photoreceptor cells respond when they are activated by light?

    <p>They hyperpolarize and stop releasing glutamate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the dark current affect the membrane potential of photoreceptor cells?

    <p>It causes the membrane potential to stabilize at -40 mV.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptors do ON bipolar cells express?

    <p>Inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the dark phase, what is the behavior of OFF bipolar cells?

    <p>They release glutamate proportional to photoreceptor glutamate release.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of opsin proteins in photoreceptor cells?

    <p>They absorb light and initiate a signaling cascade.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bipolar cells communicate the activity of photoreceptor cells?

    <p>Via graded release of glutamate depending on their own membrane potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when sodium ion channels in photoreceptor cells close in response to light?

    <p>The cell hyperpolarizes to -70 mV.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the rate of spiking in OFF retinal ganglion cells when light is present in the center of their receptive field?

    <p>It decreases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bipolar cells outside the fovea differ from those in the fovea regarding their receptive fields?

    <p>They receive synaptic inputs from many photoreceptor cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about the receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells in the fovea?

    <p>They show color opponency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily defines the receptive fields of photoreceptor cells?

    <p>A location in space and a wavelength of light.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When the entire receptive field is filled with light, how do ON type retinal ganglion cells respond?

    <p>They exhibit a response equal to the center illumination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of thalamic neurons in relation to retinal ganglion cells?

    <p>To relay information to the visual cortex.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic primarily defines the receptive fields of bipolar cells in the fovea?

    <p>They receive direct synaptic input from only one photoreceptor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of retinal ganglion cells in the visual pathway?

    <p>To transmit visual information out of the retina.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of visual agnosia in individuals with cerebral achromatopsia?

    <p>Damage to the ventral visual stream in the cerebral cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes prosopagnosia?

    <p>Failure to recognize faces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does visual agnosia differ from complete blindness?

    <p>Visual agnosia involves damage to sensory association cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of visual agnosia is characterized by a deficit in perceiving motion?

    <p>Akinetopsia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with cerebral achromatopsia perceive their world primarily in which way?

    <p>Only shades of gray</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cortex is synonymous with the primary visual cortex?

    <p>Striate cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the dorsal visual stream?

    <p>Determining spatial location</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which visual perception requires the use of both eyes?

    <p>Stereopsis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between monocular and binocular vision?

    <p>Most V1 neurons respond to input from both eyes in binocular vision.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes agnosia?

    <p>An impairment in sensory recognition despite normal sensory function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a monocular cue for depth perception?

    <p>Relative motion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is the endpoint for the ventral visual stream?

    <p>Inferior temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily enhances depth perception when playing sports?

    <p>Stereopsis through both eyes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do outer hair cells play in hearing?

    <p>They adjust the sensitivity of the tectorial membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the tip links when exposed to loud noises?

    <p>They can break, leading to temporary hearing loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the absence of inner hair cells affect a person?

    <p>They are completely deaf.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which pitch is perceived according to auditory coding?

    <p>It is indicated by the position of active hair cells on the basilar membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily responsible for breaking the tip links that connect cilia in hair cells?

    <p>Loud noises.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mechanism is primarily used to encode low frequency sounds?

    <p>Rate coding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which frequency range does the human speech primarily fall according to the place coding theory?

    <p>Moderate to high frequencies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does loudness perception correlate with hair cell activity?

    <p>It corresponds to the total number of active hair cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of tip link breakage in hair cells?

    <p>Temporary hearing loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes rate coding from place coding in the perception of sound frequencies?

    <p>Rate coding carries information about very low frequencies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of inner hair cells in auditory perception?

    <p>To convert mechanical stimuli into neural signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the fundamental frequency of a sound wave?

    <p>It is the lowest frequency and most intense frequency in a complex sound.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the response of inner hair cells change with louder sounds?

    <p>They respond to a broader range of frequencies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What affects the responsiveness of inner hair cells to specific sounds?

    <p>The density of outer hair cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which coding mechanism is primarily responsible for encoding moderate to high frequencies?

    <p>Place coding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes 'timbre' in sound perception?

    <p>The quality or color of a sound.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of overtones in defining the timbre of sound?

    <p>They contribute to the richness and complexity of the sound.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cochlear implants stimulate the perception of high-frequency sounds?

    <p>By stimulating specific areas of the cochlea using electrodes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is primarily used to localize low-frequency sounds?

    <p>Using the phase difference between the two ears.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of interaural cues in sound localization?

    <p>To assess timing and loudness differences between ears.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which frequency range is crucial for understanding human speech through cochlear implants?

    <p>250 Hz to 6500 Hz</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the shape of the outer ear contribute to sound perception?

    <p>It enhances/attenuates frequencies based on sound direction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limitations do cochlear implants have regarding sound perception?

    <p>They may not provide the full richness of natural sound due to limited encoding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is analyzing timbre important for identifying the location of a sound?

    <p>It discriminates whether a sound is coming from above, below, or in front.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of hair cells in the cochlea?

    <p>To transduce sound waves into electrical signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are high pitched notes detected within the basilar membrane?

    <p>At the thick and narrow end closest to the oval window</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the function of the tectorial membrane?

    <p>It serves as a rigid structure that interacts with hair cell cilia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes the movement of hair cell cilia in response to sound waves?

    <p>The relative movement between the basilar and tectorial membranes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the cochlea is true?

    <p>The cochlea has three longitudinal divisions: scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the cilia on hair cells?

    <p>They mechanically transduce movement into electrical signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the ear canal causes vibrations that are transferred to the middle ear?

    <p>The tympanic membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sound frequencies are detected at the thin and wide part of the basilar membrane?

    <p>Low frequencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the posterior auditory pathway?

    <p>Sound localization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the condition known as amusia?

    <p>Inability to perceive or produce melodic music</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is associated with the anterior auditory pathway?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the vestibular system play in auditory processing?

    <p>Detects gravity and head movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do auditory agnosias primarily affect a person's auditory processing?

    <p>By disrupting the ability to identify and categorize complex sounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of music is processed in different areas of the auditory association cortex?

    <p>Melody, rhythm, and harmony</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can individuals with amusia typically still recognize?

    <p>Environmental sounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of emotional response can certain combinations of musical notes elicit?

    <p>Both positive and negative emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the organ of Corti in the auditory system?

    <p>It sends auditory information to the brain via the cochlear nerve.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure helps to analyze sound signals in parallel ascending paths?

    <p>Cochlear nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the primary auditory cortex organized?

    <p>By tonotopic representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do the inferior colliculi play in hearing?

    <p>They help localize the source of sounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to auditory information after it leaves the cochlear nuclei?

    <p>It is relayed to the inferior colliculi and superior olivary nuclei.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can abrupt changes in the outer ear’s shape affect primarily?

    <p>The ability to localize the elevation of sounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nucleus is crucial for relaying auditory information to the primary auditory cortex?

    <p>Medial geniculate nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it necessary for individuals to continually learn how sound is affected by its direction?

    <p>To accurately localize sounds in their environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of ion channel is primarily involved in the detection of saltiness?

    <p>Sodium-permeable channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which taste is detected through a change in pH level?

    <p>Sour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptors are primarily responsible for fat detection?

    <p>Metabotropic receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How frequently are taste receptor cells replaced?

    <p>Every ten days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which genetic manipulation has been used to study the sugar taste receptor in mice?

    <p>Replacing sugar receptor genes with bitter receptor genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensory information is poorly localized and conveyed by unmyelinated axons?

    <p>Crude touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon illustrates that sugar and umami taste cells are instinctively rewarding?

    <p>Their direct stimulation is inherently reinforcing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of signaling do taste receptor cells use to release neurotransmitters?

    <p>Graded fashion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptors respond to both warmth and coolness?

    <p>Thermal receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes bitter taste receptor cells compared to sugar and umami receptor cells?

    <p>They are instinctively aversive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do axons that carry poorly localized sensory information first cross over to the opposite side?

    <p>In the spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is mainly responsible for detecting intense pressure?

    <p>High-threshold mechanoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pathway carries highly localized sensory information to the brain?

    <p>Dorsal column</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of nerve endings detect sensations of pain?

    <p>Free nerve endings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following ligands can activate heat receptors?

    <p>Capsaicin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the somatotopic map of the body's surface in the primary somatosensory cortex?

    <p>Somatosensory homunculus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Meissner’s corpuscles?

    <p>Respond to very light touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is common among patients with tactile agnosia?

    <p>Difficulty identifying objects by touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common treatment for phantom limb pain?

    <p>Mirror box therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which receptor is responsible for detecting umami flavors?

    <p>A specific metabotropic receptor for glutamate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological phenomenon do amputees experience after losing a limb?

    <p>Phantom limb sensation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason most treatments for phantom limb pain have shown limited effectiveness?

    <p>Confusion in the somatosensory cortices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many different categories of taste receptors have been identified?

    <p>Six</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which flavor is detected by a metabotropic receptor specifically for sweetness?

    <p>Sweetness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which somatosensory system is responsible for providing information about internal bodily conditions?

    <p>Interoceptive system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensory neuron primarily detects temperature and pain?

    <p>Free nerve endings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the skin is primarily associated with the mechanical deformation responsible for touch?

    <p>Dermis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the proprioceptive system?

    <p>It monitors body position, posture, and movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sensation is primarily encoded through the cutaneous senses?

    <p>Mechanical pressure from touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is primarily responsible for the processing of pheromones in mammals?

    <p>Vomeronasal organ</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following types of cutaneous sensations is caused by the mechanical deformation of the skin?

    <p>Pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main effect of the Whitten effect in female mice?

    <p>Synchronizing estrous cycles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factors influence male mice's mating behavior based on pheromone detection?

    <p>Presence of female pheromones in urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does the epidermis receive its oxygen supply?

    <p>From the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following pheromone effects involves female mice housed together?

    <p>Lee-Boot Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sensory receptor is sensitive to vibrations when fingers move across a rough surface?

    <p>Pacinian corpuscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about the vomeronasal organs in humans and birds?

    <p>They are present but non-functional.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the presence of unfamiliar male pheromones impact pregnant female rodents?

    <p>It can lead to pregnancy termination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of taste can cats not perceive?

    <p>Sweet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many different types of olfactory receptors do humans express?

    <p>400</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which receptor type is primarily involved in detecting pheromones in mammals?

    <p>Metabotropic vomeronasal receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure processes information from a specific type of olfactory receptor cell?

    <p>Glomeruli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavioral modification occurs in female mice when they are taken out of male pheromone influence?

    <p>Recovery of estrous cycles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does olfactory information first relay in the brain?

    <p>Primary olfactory cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of pheromones?

    <p>To signal behaviors between the same species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptors transduce odorants into changes in membrane potential?

    <p>Metabotropic G protein-coupled receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines whether an odor is liked or disliked in humans?

    <p>Learned associations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the primary gustatory cortex?

    <p>Handling taste sensations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does leptin play in the regulation of appetite?

    <p>It correlates with the amount of fat in the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when leptin levels fall below a certain threshold?

    <p>Animals feel intense hunger.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition can lead to glucoprivation?

    <p>Excessive insulin signaling.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers osmometric thirst?

    <p>The shrinking of cells due to hypertonic solutions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of exogenous leptin administration in healthy individuals?

    <p>It slightly decreases meal size but is only temporary.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological response is triggered by emergency hunger circuits?

    <p>Insulin release is suppressed and glucagon is released.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the movement of water across a membrane that is permeable only to the solvent?

    <p>Osmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which solution will cells experience no net water movement?

    <p>Isotonic solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is associated with congenital leptin deficiency?

    <p>It can result in obesity and low metabolic rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution?

    <p>They lose water and shrink</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding lipoprivation?

    <p>It can occur due to drugs that inhibit fatty acid metabolism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common result of glucoprivation in the body?

    <p>Intense hunger signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does drinking water result in cells expanding in size?

    <p>It lowers the tonicity of extracellular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does tonicity specifically refer to?

    <p>Relative concentration of solutes in solutions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological condition is associated with volumetric thirst?

    <p>Decreased blood volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do osmoreceptors play in thirst regulation?

    <p>They detect osmotic changes in cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of one triglyceride molecule?

    <p>1 glycerol molecule + 3 fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone increases hunger and food intake when administered exogenously?

    <p>Ghrelin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hormones CCK and GLP-1 in the digestive process?

    <p>To regulate the release of digestive enzymes and insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does glucagon play in energy metabolism?

    <p>Facilitates the breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about the body's response to low blood glucose levels?

    <p>Glycogen in the liver is broken down into glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of repeated administration of CCK on food intake?

    <p>It may decrease meal size but not overall calorie intake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What consequence does the administration of GLP-1 agonists have?

    <p>Highly effective weight reduction and decreased hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological signal is primarily involved in communicating an empty stomach to the brain?

    <p>Ghrelin release</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does homeostasis actively maintain in an animal's body?

    <p>Internal conditions, food, and water availability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological response occurs when the body temperature is too cold?

    <p>Peripheral blood vessels constrict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which behavior is part of conscious temperature regulation?

    <p>Drinking water when thirsty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do warm-blooded animals respond to overheating?

    <p>Engage in heavy breathing to cool down</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily responsible for water loss in humans?

    <p>Urinating, sweating, and breathing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a need state when temperature becomes uncomfortable?

    <p>A motivating drive to correct a specific problem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are cold-blooded animals limited in their temperature regulation?

    <p>Their ability to move and function depends on ambient temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens after a need becomes satisfied regarding the individual's emotions?

    <p>Relief or pleasure is typically experienced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the cascade of chemical reactions leading to thirst after significant blood loss?

    <p>Release of renin from the kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is primarily responsible for neural activity related to feelings of thirst?

    <p>Anteroventral tip of the third ventricle (AV3V)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the neural activity in the AV3V region immediately after drinking?

    <p>It continues until water reaches the relevant cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes blood glucose levels to decrease after a meal?

    <p>Absorption of glucose by liver and muscle cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells in the body can take in glucose without the presence of insulin?

    <p>Brain cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of insulin in relation to fatty acids in the body?

    <p>To store fatty acids as triglycerides in adipose tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name given to our short-term storage of glucose?

    <p>Glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is released when blood glucose levels are low?

    <p>Glucagon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes intense hunger in individuals with diabetes, regardless of high blood glucose levels?

    <p>Depleted fat cells and low leptin levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurons in the hypothalamus are stimulated by ghrelin to promote hunger?

    <p>AGRP/NPY neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the role of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) in hunger regulation?

    <p>It stops firing when the body has dangerously low fat levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of Prader-Willi syndrome?

    <p>Chromosomal abnormality with gene deletions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates a lipoprivation-related feeding emergency?

    <p>Depletion of fat cells leading to falling leptin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which two hormones have opposing effects on the neurons that regulate hunger in the hypothalamus?

    <p>Leptin and ghrelin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the feeding behavior when PVN neuron activity is artificially increased?

    <p>No substantial change in hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition can result from untreated type 1 diabetes?

    <p>Intense thirst and progressive weight loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do vasopressin and oxytocin play in the formation of pair bonds?

    <p>They influence emotional attachment and bonding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does artificially increasing vasopressin and oxytocin receptors in non-monogamous voles affect their behavior?

    <p>It enables them to form lifelong monogamous pair bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant psychological impact of falling in love or experiencing addiction?

    <p>It alters one’s priorities and choice behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best explains the motivational processes regulated by the brain during emotional experiences?

    <p>They dictate intense feelings of joy and suffering.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can characterize the experience of recovering from a devastating breakup?

    <p>It may involve relapses into obsessive behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary trigger for the development of female reproductive anatomy in the absence of anti-Mullerian signaling?

    <p>Absence of testosterone signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What genetic condition involves the presence of one sex chromosome (X0) and affects gonad development?

    <p>Turner Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critical event marks the start of ovarian function and development of female sex organs?

    <p>Puberty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which syndrome occurs when an individual has XY chromosomes but a dysfunctional SRY gene?

    <p>Swyer Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the absence of gonads have on an individual?

    <p>Infertility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the absence of two X chromosomes, which structure is not formed?

    <p>Ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone initiates the signaling for the development of male sex organs?

    <p>Testosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the nature of the development of female sex organs in cases of genetic abnormalities like Turner Syndrome?

    <p>Undifferentiated development into female organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the biological sex of an animal at birth?

    <p>Combination of sex chromosomes, gonads, hormones, and anatomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about gametes in comparison to regular cells in the body?

    <p>Gametes have one copy of each chromosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the innate behaviors of individuals relate to cultural values?

    <p>The value of innate behaviors is culturally determined</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor used to determine biological sex?

    <p>Ability to reproduce</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is correct regarding the fusion of gametes?

    <p>Gametes from both parents combine to produce a diploid zygote</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of sex hormones in sexual development?

    <p>To promote growth of gonads and development of sexual characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about intelligence is true?

    <p>Different brains can exhibit similar intellectual performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes gametes?

    <p>They are specialized cells made by gonads for reproduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically causes undifferentiated fetal gonads to develop into testes?

    <p>SRY gene on the Y chromosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system develops in the absence of testicular function in early fetal development?

    <p>Müllerian system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principal effect of anti-Müllerian hormone in males during development?

    <p>Stops the development of the Müllerian system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the absence of testosterone have on sperm production in males?

    <p>Sperm production ceases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is primarily responsible for the physical features characteristic of females?

    <p>Estradiol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is primarily responsible for the masculinizing effect during early development?

    <p>Androgens, specifically testosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition arises when atypical combinations result in the inability to be distinctly male or female?

    <p>Intersex conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do estrous cycles differ from menstrual cycles in most mammals?

    <p>They have a defined mating season</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the sexual activity patterns of animals with estrous cycles?

    <p>They only exhibit sexual activity during their heat phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the Wolffian system if the SRY gene is expressed and testes develop?

    <p>It triggers the development of male internal sex organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is released by the testes and leads to the development of male external sex organs?

    <p>Dihydrotestosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does progesterone play in the female reproductive cycle?

    <p>Supports implantation and maintains pregnancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about sexual behavior during the menstrual cycle in humans compared to the estrous cycle?

    <p>Menstrual cycles are associated with only small fluctuations in sexual behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of androgens in the development of male sex organs?

    <p>Trigger the Wolffian system development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do ovarian hormones influence sexual behavior in females?

    <p>They influence sexual arousal somewhat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of hormonal control continues after birth in rodents?

    <p>The organizational effects on the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can insufficient anti-Müllerian hormone signaling lead to in terms of sexual organ development?

    <p>Mixed development of male and female internal sex organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of insufficient androgen signaling in individuals with androgen insensitivity syndrome?

    <p>Normal female external genitalia with no internal sex organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by both male and female sexual organ development due to hormonal signaling issues?

    <p>Incomplete Masculinization Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is primarily responsible for the defeminization process during male development?

    <p>Anti-Müllerian hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do organizational sex hormones affect the body's development?

    <p>They guide the developmental trajectory permanently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormonal insufficiency leads to the absence of typical male internal sex organs?

    <p>Insufficient androgen signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with typical genetic X and Y chromosomes may experience female-typical development due to what condition?

    <p>Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition can result from having an SRY gene combined with two or more X chromosomes?

    <p>Klinefelter Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of brain activity is characterized by frequencies of 13-30 Hz and is typical of an aroused state?

    <p>Beta activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the electromyogram (EMG) specifically measure during sleep research?

    <p>Muscle activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following activities is most prominent during the early stages of sleep?

    <p>Theta activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    To measure eye movements in a sleep study, which method is employed?

    <p>Electro-oculogram (EOG)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the frequency range of alpha activity, which indicates a state of relaxation in awake individuals?

    <p>8–13 Hz</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characterized as difficulty falling asleep or waking during the night?

    <p>Insomnia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fatal Familial Insomnia is primarily associated with which part of the brain?

    <p>Thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What disorder involves acting out dreams due to a lack of paralysis during REM sleep?

    <p>REM sleep behavior disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT classified as a non-REM parasomnia?

    <p>Nightmare disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by overwhelming feelings of terror upon waking?

    <p>Sleep terror</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of learning and memory, what do we refer to the changes due to experiences?

    <p>Memory traces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about memory retrieval is accurate?

    <p>It encompasses accessing memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the prevalence of insomnia is true?

    <p>Approximately 25% occasionally experience insomnia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to the motor neuron response after habituation of the gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia?

    <p>The motor neuron produces a smaller response after sensory neuron activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What change occurs in the presynaptic neuron of Aplysia after habituation?

    <p>There are fewer synaptic vesicles available</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does sensitization in Aplysia differ from habituation?

    <p>Sensitization heightens responses to other stimuli after a strong stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the postsynaptic receptor sites after habituation in the gill withdrawal reflex?

    <p>There are fewer glutamate receptors present</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the gill withdrawal reflex is true in terms of synaptic strength after sensitization?

    <p>Synaptic connections strengthen, leading to heightened motor responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of the sensory neuron after habituation, what remains unchanged?

    <p>The overall excitability of the sensory neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily characterizes the long-term physical changes in synaptic connections in Aplysia?

    <p>Growth of the postsynaptic membrane and receptor density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Following habituation, what can be inferred about the overall capability of the gill's response to action potentials?

    <p>The gill remains equally responsive to intense stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

    <p>An enduring increase in synaptic strength.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which frequency of stimulation is typically used to elicit long-term potentiation?

    <p>100 Hz for 1 second</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is long-term depression (LTD)?

    <p>An enduring decrease in synaptic strength.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of stimulation typically induces long-term depression?

    <p>Persistent low-frequency stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule is released during long-term potentiation that triggers changes on the presynaptic side?

    <p>Nitric oxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the postsynaptic changes during long-term potentiation?

    <p>More neurotransmitter receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does low-frequency stimulation have on a neuron when inducing long-term depression?

    <p>Reduces neurotransmitter release per spike</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of long-term depression?

    <p>A decrease in strength of the synaptic connection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What encompasses the concept of neuronal plasticity?

    <p>The ability of the nervous system to change and adapt.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is primarily measured to assess intrinsic excitability of a neuron?

    <p>The number of action potentials in response to current injections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Synaptic plasticity can involve changes in which of the following?

    <p>The strength of the synaptic connection between two neurons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological factor greatly influences neuronal excitability?

    <p>The composition of ion channels on the membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of having fewer potassium leak channels on a neuron's excitability?

    <p>It increases the neuron's excitability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates synaptic strengthening in a postsynaptic neuron?

    <p>An increase in the size of the postsynaptic response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Changes in the number of which structures can affect synaptic plasticity?

    <p>neurotransmitter vesicles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When measuring synaptic strength, what type of response is identified when a presynaptic neuron has an action potential?

    <p>Excitatory postsynaptic potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major mechanism for initiating long-term depression (LTD)?

    <p>Release of retrograde signaling molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of NMDA receptors in synaptic plasticity?

    <p>They act as coincidence detectors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What frequency of stimulation is commonly used to induce LTD?

    <p>1 Hz</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does low-frequency stimulation affect postsynaptic neuron firing?

    <p>It often generates subthreshold responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to Mg2+ ions in the NMDA receptor during hyperpolarization?

    <p>They completely block current flow.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition promotes long-term potentiation (LTP) at synapses?

    <p>Simultaneous activation of postsynaptic neurons with high neurotransmitter release.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During what condition will NMDA receptors primarily allow current flow?

    <p>When glutamate binds with the receptor and the membrane is depolarized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected outcome of stimulation at approximately 100 Hz?

    <p>Promotion of long-term potentiation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is necessary for NMDA receptors to be permeable to Na+ and Ca2+ ions?

    <p>Binding of glutamate and slight depolarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of AMPA receptors in the brain?

    <p>To allow sodium ions to cause excitatory postsynaptic potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does CaMKII contribute to long-term potentiation at glutamate synapses?

    <p>By increasing the number of AMPA receptors in the postsynaptic membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Hebb's rule suggest about the relationship between synaptic activity and learning?

    <p>Synaptic connections that are active together become stronger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature of dendritic spines correlates with synaptic strength at glutamatergic synapses?

    <p>The size of the spine and the number of AMPA receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do NMDA receptors get clogged by Mg2+ ions when a neuron is hyperpolarized?

    <p>Due to voltage dependency preventing channel opening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does long-term potentiation play in synaptic plasticity?

    <p>It strengthens synaptic connections that are active</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ion the NMDA receptors specifically opens the path for, aside from Na+?

    <p>Ca2+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of most synapses in the brain?

    <p>They are highly plastic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the best approach to prepare for the midterm exam as stated in the instructions?

    <p>Attend the exam in the designated room and time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long is the midterm exam expected to take?

    <p>1 hour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What seating arrangement is suggested during the midterm exam?

    <p>Sit every other seat.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required to bring to the midterm exam?

    <p>A pencil and eraser.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What information is provided about the exam's start time?

    <p>Admittance ends at 4:30 pm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    On which date is the midterm exam scheduled to take place?

    <p>Monday, Nov. 11th</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the nature of the questions that will be included in the midterm exam?

    <p>Multiple-choice questions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process describes improvements in motor behavior following a period of memory consolidation?

    <p>Between-session learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary contribution of perceptual learning?

    <p>Recognizing and categorizing objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain areas are associated with motor learning?

    <p>Frontal lobe and cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major consequence of damage to the sensory association cortex?

    <p>Impaired ability to recognize stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do associations play in perceptual learning?

    <p>They strengthen synaptic connections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main effect of reinforcement on an animal's behavior?

    <p>Increases the likelihood of repeating the behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the brain plays a key role in automating stimulus-response behaviors?

    <p>Basal ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of amnesia is characterized by the inability to form new memories after an event, while retaining some old memories?

    <p>Anterograde amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which memory type is generally intact after hippocampal damage, despite damage affecting episodic memories?

    <p>Semantic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does dopamine signaling influence habit learning?

    <p>It provides feedback that shapes the likelihood of behavior repetition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the unintentional creation of false memories in people with Korsakoff's syndrome?

    <p>Confabulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the decision-making process when successful behaviors are repeated multiple times?

    <p>It gets automated, freeing up conscious thought processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically happens to episodic memories formed prior to hippocampal damage?

    <p>They become less accurate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does reinforcement learning alter in neural circuits?

    <p>Strength of connections between perception and decision-making circuits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components make up the main pathways between sensory and motor cortices?

    <p>Transcortical connections and basal ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is often linked to permanent anterograde amnesia due to chronic alcoholism?

    <p>Korsakoff's syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of dopamine neurons in the midbrain related to reinforcement?

    <p>To broadcast perceptions of reinforcement and punishment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common impact of a strong blow to the head related to amnesia?

    <p>Both retrograde and anterograde amnesia can occur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines habitual behaviors in terms of conscious awareness?

    <p>They happen without conscious consideration of details</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of memory remains generally unaffected in individuals who have experienced hippocampal damage?

    <p>Motor skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of amnesia is typically seen in individuals with significant bilateral hippocampal damage after surgery?

    <p>Graded retrograde amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to weak excitatory synapses when they are consistently active during postsynaptic cell spiking?

    <p>They grow stronger.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory is characterized by unconscious influences on behavior?

    <p>Procedural memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes explicitly accessible memories that can be consciously thought about?

    <p>Explicit memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common example of implicit memory?

    <p>Remembering how to ride a bike.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of explicit memory involves autobiographical details tied to specific times and places?

    <p>Episodic memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do synapses typically respond when their activity does not correlate positively with postsynaptic spiking?

    <p>They weaken.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes semantic memory?

    <p>General knowledge and facts learned over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best explains the monitoring role of enzymes at synapses?

    <p>They evaluate neurotransmitter release frequency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of motor learning?

    <p>Creating skilled, coordinated movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is primarily involved in relational learning?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes sensory memory?

    <p>Retains experiences of sensations for a brief period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning involves the acquisition of responses to stimuli?

    <p>Stimulus-response learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes short-term memory?

    <p>Has a limited capacity of a few items</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of perceptual learning?

    <p>Involves the recognition of distinct stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can long-term memory be strengthened?

    <p>Through repeated retrieval events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning is primarily dependent on the neocortex?

    <p>Perceptual learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211

    • Lecture 9 of 24, focusing on vision (part 1 or 2)
    • Professor Jonathan Britt
    • Contact information provided for questions/concerns

    Sensation vs. Perception

    • Sensation: How nervous system cells detect stimuli (light, sound, heat) and convert them into changes in membrane potential and neurotransmitter release.
    • Perception: The conscious experience and interpretation of sensory information.

    Sensory Neurons

    • Specialized cells detecting specific physical events:
      • Presence of molecules (smell, taste, nausea, pain)
      • Physical pressure (touch, stretch, vibration, acceleration, gravity, balance, hearing, thirst, pain)
      • Temperature (heat, cold, pain)
      • pH of a liquid (sour taste, suffocation, pain)
      • Electromagnetic radiation (light - vision)
    • Some non-human animals have additional senses (e.g., electric/magnetic fields, humidity, water pressure)

    Sensory Transduction

    • Sensory neurons have specialized receptors that convert sensory stimuli into changes in membrane potential.
    • Sensory neurons vary in shape and size.
    • Many sensory neurons lack axons and action potentials, but they all release neurotransmitters.
    • Neurotransmitter release occurs in a graded fashion, depending on the membrane potential; greater depolarization leads to more neurotransmitter release.

    Photoreceptors

    • Sensory neurons responsible for vision.
    • Transduce electromagnetic energy (visible light) into changes in membrane potential, affecting neurotransmitter release.
    • Lack action potentials.
    • Opsins: Light-sensitive proteins in photoreceptor cells. They are metabotropic receptors, requiring a light-sensitive molecule to activate them.
    • Retinal: Small molecule derived from vitamin A, attaches to opsin proteins, and absorbs electromagnetic energy of visible light. Retinal shape change initiates the activation cascade.

    The Two Configurations of the Retinal Molecule

    • Retinal's shape changes when it absorbs light, activating the opsin protein, which initiates intracellular signaling cascade and changing membrane potential.

    Neural Transduction of Light

    • Four types of photoreceptor cells contributing to vision:
      • Red cone cells
      • Green cone cells
      • Blue cone cells
      • Rod cells (contain rhodopsin)
    • Each type is sensitive to different wavelengths of light (depending on retinal binding).
    • Rod cells evolved later and are 100 times more sensitive to light than cone cells.

    What the Eyes Detect

    • Visible light: Electromagnetic energy with wavelengths between 380-760 nm.
    • Detected by four kinds of photoreceptor cells (one rod cell, three cone cells).

    Cone Photoreceptors: Trichromatic Coding

    • Blue cones: Most sensitive to short wavelengths of light.
    • Green cones: Most sensitive to medium wavelengths of light.
    • Red cones: Most sensitive to long wavelengths of light.
    • Color perception: A function of the relative activity levels across the three cone types.

    Cone Photoreceptors: Trichromatic Coding (details)

    • Cone cells are not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of light; green is typically perceived as brighter than red or blue when displayed at the same intensity.
    • Color perception depends on the relative activation rates of the three cone cell types.

    Trichromatic Coding

    • Three types of light (red, green, and blue) contribute to all visible colors.
    • Combining different intensities of these three basic colors can create any visible color.
    • Close proximity of red and green lights can make them appear as yellow.

    Additive vs. Subtractive Color

    • Additive: Primary colors of light added together create new colors, with white being the combined result.
    • Subtractive: Primary colors of paint absorb wavelengths while reflecting others, combining to produce different colors. Yellow, magenta, and cyan are the primary colors in paint.

    Perceptual Dimensions of Color & Light

    • Brightness: Intensity (amount) of light.
    • Saturation: Purity (wavelength mixture) of light.
    • Hue: Dominant wavelength or color of light.
    • Saturation 0%: Grayscale (black & white).
    • Saturation > 0%: Indicates light's dominant color.

    Color Vision Deficiency

    • Protanopia: Absence of red cone opsin, resulting in difficulty distinguishing colors in the green-yellow-red spectrum.
    • Deuteranopia: Absence of green cone opsin, similar challenges to protanopia.
    • Tritanopia: Absence of blue cone opsin; visual acuity often not affected.

    Anatomy of the Eye

    • Cornea: Outer front layer, focuses incoming light.
    • Iris: Muscle that controls pupil size.
    • Pupil: Opening in the iris, controls the amount of light entering the eye.
    • Lens: Transparent structure that focuses light. Accomodation: Changing the shape of the lens to focus near or far objects.
    • Conjunctiva: Membranes lining eyelids with part extending to eye surface
    • Sclera: Opaque outer layer, no light passes through.
    • Retina: Innermost lining of the eye. Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones).
    • Fovea: Central region, highest visual acuity, mostly cone cells.
    • Optic Disk: Where optic nerve exits and blood vessels enter/leave the eye. Contains a blind spot.
    • Vitreous humor: Clear gel in large space behind lens

    Movements of the Eye

    • Eyes constantly move; rapid saccadic movements and slower pursuit movements.
    • Extraocular muscles control eye movements; connected to the sclera.

    Organization of the Retina

    • Visual information relayed through layers of cells in retina (photoreceptors - bipolar cells - retinal ganglion cells) - light passes through each layer before reaching opsin in photoreceptors.
    • Opsin proteins located in the back of the retina.
    • Horizontal and amacrine cells help with interactions within each layer.

    Retina Fovea vs. Periphery

    • Fovea: High resolution, color vision, good for detailed tasks like reading. Contains similar number of photoreceptors and retinal ganglion cells; no compression.
    • Periphery: High sensitivity to dim light, but lower visual acuity. Contains a large number of rod cells, allowing efficient detection of movement and general shapes in low-light. Massive compression of information due to the higher ratio of photoreceptors to ganglion cells.

    Peripheral Vision

    • Visual acuity and color distinction are poor in peripheral vision compared to fovea.
    • Main function is to detect movement and general shapes.

    Rod and Cone Photoreceptors

    • Cones: Located in fovea, sensitive to high light levels, provide color vision and high acuity
    • Rods: Located peripherally, sensitive to low light levels, provide monochrome vision and low acuity

    Neurons in the Retina

    • Photoreceptor cells contain opsin proteins.
    • Bipolar cells transmit signals from photoreceptors to ganglion cells.
    • Ganglion cells send information out of the eye via the optic nerve.
    • Horizontal and amacrine cells connect neurons within each layer, promoting complex interactions.

    Visual Information Pathways

    • Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) send information to three main destinations:
      • Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) in thalamus, processing information for conscious vision.
      • Superior Colliculi (SC) in midbrain, involved in reflexive eye movements and orienting to stimuli.
      • Hypothalamus, regulating circadian rhythms using light information.

    Visual Cortex Wiring Diagram

    • Visual cortex wiring is more complex than previously thought, involving bidirectional (bottom-up and top-down) pathways.
    • Predictive coding theory explains how the visual cortex predicts future inputs based on prior experiences.

    Blind Spot

    • Location of the optic disk where the optic nerve exits the eye.
    • No photoreceptors in the blind spot.
    • Tested through tests that exploit our brains ability to fill gaps in our peripheral vision.

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    Description

    This quiz covers Lecture 9 of the Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience course, focusing on the first part of vision. Topics include the differences between sensation and perception, the role of sensory neurons, and the process of sensory transduction. Prepare to enhance your understanding of how the nervous system interprets sensory information.

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