Podcast
Questions and Answers
What condition is characterized by the absence of the blue cone opsin?
What condition is characterized by the absence of the blue cone opsin?
- Achromatopsia
- Deuteranopia
- Protanopia
- Tritanopia (correct)
Which type of color vision deficiency involves the absence of the red cone opsin?
Which type of color vision deficiency involves the absence of the red cone opsin?
- Deuteranopia
- Protanopia (correct)
- Tritanopia
- Normal Vision
What is the genetic inheritance pattern of Protanopia?
What is the genetic inheritance pattern of Protanopia?
- X-linked recessive (correct)
- Mitochondrial inheritance
- Autosomal dominant
- Autosomal recessive
How does visual acuity remain normal in Deuteranopia?
How does visual acuity remain normal in Deuteranopia?
What is true color blindness known as?
What is true color blindness known as?
Which photoreceptor cells are involved in detecting visible light wavelengths?
Which photoreceptor cells are involved in detecting visible light wavelengths?
Which type of vision deficiency involves a simple mutation of the green cone opsin?
Which type of vision deficiency involves a simple mutation of the green cone opsin?
What wavelength range is classified as visible light?
What wavelength range is classified as visible light?
What causes the perception of yellow when red and green light are combined?
What causes the perception of yellow when red and green light are combined?
Which cone type has the highest activation when perceiving orange light at 610 nm?
Which cone type has the highest activation when perceiving orange light at 610 nm?
What is the primary reason green light may appear brighter than red or blue light at the same intensity?
What is the primary reason green light may appear brighter than red or blue light at the same intensity?
What do yellow, magenta, and cyan pigments do in terms of light absorption?
What do yellow, magenta, and cyan pigments do in terms of light absorption?
Why is red paint not considered a primary paint color?
Why is red paint not considered a primary paint color?
In trichromatic vision, how are colors identified?
In trichromatic vision, how are colors identified?
What would likely happen if all three types of cone cells are equally activated?
What would likely happen if all three types of cone cells are equally activated?
What is the main challenge when mixing different paint colors?
What is the main challenge when mixing different paint colors?
What is the primary cause of Protanopia?
What is the primary cause of Protanopia?
If an individual has Deuteranopia, which opsin is absent?
If an individual has Deuteranopia, which opsin is absent?
How does the absence of red cone opsin affect visual acuity in individuals with Protanopia?
How does the absence of red cone opsin affect visual acuity in individuals with Protanopia?
What color vision deficiency is characterized by the absence of the green cone opsin?
What color vision deficiency is characterized by the absence of the green cone opsin?
In terms of inheritance, which gender is predominantly affected by color vision deficiencies such as Protanopia and Deuteranopia?
In terms of inheritance, which gender is predominantly affected by color vision deficiencies such as Protanopia and Deuteranopia?
What effect does a saturation of 0% have on color perception?
What effect does a saturation of 0% have on color perception?
How do mutations in the cone opsins generally affect color vision?
How do mutations in the cone opsins generally affect color vision?
Which dimension of color perception does saturation specifically relate to?
Which dimension of color perception does saturation specifically relate to?
What happens to ON bipolar cells in the dark?
What happens to ON bipolar cells in the dark?
How do horizontal cells affect the response of a dimly lit center photoreceptor cell?
How do horizontal cells affect the response of a dimly lit center photoreceptor cell?
Which of the following correctly describes the function of horizontal cells?
Which of the following correctly describes the function of horizontal cells?
What characterizes retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)?
What characterizes retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)?
In what way do photoreceptor cells respond to light conditions?
In what way do photoreceptor cells respond to light conditions?
What occurs when an ON bipolar cell detects light?
What occurs when an ON bipolar cell detects light?
Which membrane potential corresponds to an OFF bipolar cell in darkness?
Which membrane potential corresponds to an OFF bipolar cell in darkness?
What is the response of retinal ganglion cells when light is detected in the center of their receptive field?
What is the response of retinal ganglion cells when light is detected in the center of their receptive field?
Which statement about bipolar cell receptive fields is correct?
Which statement about bipolar cell receptive fields is correct?
How does the membrane potential change for ON bipolar cells in response to a photoreceptor detecting darkness?
How does the membrane potential change for ON bipolar cells in response to a photoreceptor detecting darkness?
What is the effect of horizontal cells on the bipolar cell receptive fields?
What is the effect of horizontal cells on the bipolar cell receptive fields?
What describes the neurotransmitter release of an OFF bipolar cell when an upstream photoreceptor detects light?
What describes the neurotransmitter release of an OFF bipolar cell when an upstream photoreceptor detects light?
What pattern of neurotransmitter release occurs for an ON bipolar cell at a membrane potential of -45 mV?
What pattern of neurotransmitter release occurs for an ON bipolar cell at a membrane potential of -45 mV?
What is the resting membrane potential of photoreceptor cells in complete darkness?
What is the resting membrane potential of photoreceptor cells in complete darkness?
How do photoreceptor cells respond when they are activated by light?
How do photoreceptor cells respond when they are activated by light?
How does the dark current affect the membrane potential of photoreceptor cells?
How does the dark current affect the membrane potential of photoreceptor cells?
What type of receptors do ON bipolar cells express?
What type of receptors do ON bipolar cells express?
During the dark phase, what is the behavior of OFF bipolar cells?
During the dark phase, what is the behavior of OFF bipolar cells?
What is the role of opsin proteins in photoreceptor cells?
What is the role of opsin proteins in photoreceptor cells?
How do bipolar cells communicate the activity of photoreceptor cells?
How do bipolar cells communicate the activity of photoreceptor cells?
What occurs when sodium ion channels in photoreceptor cells close in response to light?
What occurs when sodium ion channels in photoreceptor cells close in response to light?
What happens to the rate of spiking in OFF retinal ganglion cells when light is present in the center of their receptive field?
What happens to the rate of spiking in OFF retinal ganglion cells when light is present in the center of their receptive field?
How do bipolar cells outside the fovea differ from those in the fovea regarding their receptive fields?
How do bipolar cells outside the fovea differ from those in the fovea regarding their receptive fields?
What is true about the receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells in the fovea?
What is true about the receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells in the fovea?
What primarily defines the receptive fields of photoreceptor cells?
What primarily defines the receptive fields of photoreceptor cells?
When the entire receptive field is filled with light, how do ON type retinal ganglion cells respond?
When the entire receptive field is filled with light, how do ON type retinal ganglion cells respond?
What is the primary function of thalamic neurons in relation to retinal ganglion cells?
What is the primary function of thalamic neurons in relation to retinal ganglion cells?
Which characteristic primarily defines the receptive fields of bipolar cells in the fovea?
Which characteristic primarily defines the receptive fields of bipolar cells in the fovea?
What is the main purpose of retinal ganglion cells in the visual pathway?
What is the main purpose of retinal ganglion cells in the visual pathway?
What is the primary cause of visual agnosia in individuals with cerebral achromatopsia?
What is the primary cause of visual agnosia in individuals with cerebral achromatopsia?
Which of the following describes prosopagnosia?
Which of the following describes prosopagnosia?
How does visual agnosia differ from complete blindness?
How does visual agnosia differ from complete blindness?
What type of visual agnosia is characterized by a deficit in perceiving motion?
What type of visual agnosia is characterized by a deficit in perceiving motion?
Individuals with cerebral achromatopsia perceive their world primarily in which way?
Individuals with cerebral achromatopsia perceive their world primarily in which way?
Which cortex is synonymous with the primary visual cortex?
Which cortex is synonymous with the primary visual cortex?
What is the primary function of the dorsal visual stream?
What is the primary function of the dorsal visual stream?
Which visual perception requires the use of both eyes?
Which visual perception requires the use of both eyes?
What is the key difference between monocular and binocular vision?
What is the key difference between monocular and binocular vision?
What best describes agnosia?
What best describes agnosia?
Which of the following is a monocular cue for depth perception?
Which of the following is a monocular cue for depth perception?
Which brain region is the endpoint for the ventral visual stream?
Which brain region is the endpoint for the ventral visual stream?
What primarily enhances depth perception when playing sports?
What primarily enhances depth perception when playing sports?
What role do outer hair cells play in hearing?
What role do outer hair cells play in hearing?
What happens to the tip links when exposed to loud noises?
What happens to the tip links when exposed to loud noises?
How does the absence of inner hair cells affect a person?
How does the absence of inner hair cells affect a person?
What is the primary mechanism by which pitch is perceived according to auditory coding?
What is the primary mechanism by which pitch is perceived according to auditory coding?
What is primarily responsible for breaking the tip links that connect cilia in hair cells?
What is primarily responsible for breaking the tip links that connect cilia in hair cells?
What mechanism is primarily used to encode low frequency sounds?
What mechanism is primarily used to encode low frequency sounds?
In which frequency range does the human speech primarily fall according to the place coding theory?
In which frequency range does the human speech primarily fall according to the place coding theory?
How does loudness perception correlate with hair cell activity?
How does loudness perception correlate with hair cell activity?
What is the consequence of tip link breakage in hair cells?
What is the consequence of tip link breakage in hair cells?
What distinguishes rate coding from place coding in the perception of sound frequencies?
What distinguishes rate coding from place coding in the perception of sound frequencies?
What is the primary role of inner hair cells in auditory perception?
What is the primary role of inner hair cells in auditory perception?
What characterizes the fundamental frequency of a sound wave?
What characterizes the fundamental frequency of a sound wave?
How does the response of inner hair cells change with louder sounds?
How does the response of inner hair cells change with louder sounds?
What affects the responsiveness of inner hair cells to specific sounds?
What affects the responsiveness of inner hair cells to specific sounds?
Which coding mechanism is primarily responsible for encoding moderate to high frequencies?
Which coding mechanism is primarily responsible for encoding moderate to high frequencies?
Which of the following best describes 'timbre' in sound perception?
Which of the following best describes 'timbre' in sound perception?
What is the role of overtones in defining the timbre of sound?
What is the role of overtones in defining the timbre of sound?
How do cochlear implants stimulate the perception of high-frequency sounds?
How do cochlear implants stimulate the perception of high-frequency sounds?
Which method is primarily used to localize low-frequency sounds?
Which method is primarily used to localize low-frequency sounds?
What is the primary function of interaural cues in sound localization?
What is the primary function of interaural cues in sound localization?
Which frequency range is crucial for understanding human speech through cochlear implants?
Which frequency range is crucial for understanding human speech through cochlear implants?
How does the shape of the outer ear contribute to sound perception?
How does the shape of the outer ear contribute to sound perception?
What limitations do cochlear implants have regarding sound perception?
What limitations do cochlear implants have regarding sound perception?
Why is analyzing timbre important for identifying the location of a sound?
Why is analyzing timbre important for identifying the location of a sound?
What is the role of hair cells in the cochlea?
What is the role of hair cells in the cochlea?
Where are high pitched notes detected within the basilar membrane?
Where are high pitched notes detected within the basilar membrane?
Which of the following describes the function of the tectorial membrane?
Which of the following describes the function of the tectorial membrane?
What causes the movement of hair cell cilia in response to sound waves?
What causes the movement of hair cell cilia in response to sound waves?
Which of the following statements about the cochlea is true?
Which of the following statements about the cochlea is true?
What is the significance of the cilia on hair cells?
What is the significance of the cilia on hair cells?
Which part of the ear canal causes vibrations that are transferred to the middle ear?
Which part of the ear canal causes vibrations that are transferred to the middle ear?
What type of sound frequencies are detected at the thin and wide part of the basilar membrane?
What type of sound frequencies are detected at the thin and wide part of the basilar membrane?
What is the primary function of the posterior auditory pathway?
What is the primary function of the posterior auditory pathway?
What characterizes the condition known as amusia?
What characterizes the condition known as amusia?
Which area of the brain is associated with the anterior auditory pathway?
Which area of the brain is associated with the anterior auditory pathway?
What role does the vestibular system play in auditory processing?
What role does the vestibular system play in auditory processing?
How do auditory agnosias primarily affect a person's auditory processing?
How do auditory agnosias primarily affect a person's auditory processing?
Which aspect of music is processed in different areas of the auditory association cortex?
Which aspect of music is processed in different areas of the auditory association cortex?
What can individuals with amusia typically still recognize?
What can individuals with amusia typically still recognize?
What type of emotional response can certain combinations of musical notes elicit?
What type of emotional response can certain combinations of musical notes elicit?
What is the primary function of the organ of Corti in the auditory system?
What is the primary function of the organ of Corti in the auditory system?
Which structure helps to analyze sound signals in parallel ascending paths?
Which structure helps to analyze sound signals in parallel ascending paths?
How is the primary auditory cortex organized?
How is the primary auditory cortex organized?
What role do the inferior colliculi play in hearing?
What role do the inferior colliculi play in hearing?
What happens to auditory information after it leaves the cochlear nuclei?
What happens to auditory information after it leaves the cochlear nuclei?
What can abrupt changes in the outer ear’s shape affect primarily?
What can abrupt changes in the outer ear’s shape affect primarily?
Which nucleus is crucial for relaying auditory information to the primary auditory cortex?
Which nucleus is crucial for relaying auditory information to the primary auditory cortex?
Why is it necessary for individuals to continually learn how sound is affected by its direction?
Why is it necessary for individuals to continually learn how sound is affected by its direction?
Which type of ion channel is primarily involved in the detection of saltiness?
Which type of ion channel is primarily involved in the detection of saltiness?
Which taste is detected through a change in pH level?
Which taste is detected through a change in pH level?
What type of receptors are primarily responsible for fat detection?
What type of receptors are primarily responsible for fat detection?
How frequently are taste receptor cells replaced?
How frequently are taste receptor cells replaced?
Which genetic manipulation has been used to study the sugar taste receptor in mice?
Which genetic manipulation has been used to study the sugar taste receptor in mice?
What type of sensory information is poorly localized and conveyed by unmyelinated axons?
What type of sensory information is poorly localized and conveyed by unmyelinated axons?
What phenomenon illustrates that sugar and umami taste cells are instinctively rewarding?
What phenomenon illustrates that sugar and umami taste cells are instinctively rewarding?
What type of signaling do taste receptor cells use to release neurotransmitters?
What type of signaling do taste receptor cells use to release neurotransmitters?
What type of receptors respond to both warmth and coolness?
What type of receptors respond to both warmth and coolness?
What characterizes bitter taste receptor cells compared to sugar and umami receptor cells?
What characterizes bitter taste receptor cells compared to sugar and umami receptor cells?
Where do axons that carry poorly localized sensory information first cross over to the opposite side?
Where do axons that carry poorly localized sensory information first cross over to the opposite side?
Which type of receptor is mainly responsible for detecting intense pressure?
Which type of receptor is mainly responsible for detecting intense pressure?
Which pathway carries highly localized sensory information to the brain?
Which pathway carries highly localized sensory information to the brain?
What type of nerve endings detect sensations of pain?
What type of nerve endings detect sensations of pain?
Which of the following ligands can activate heat receptors?
Which of the following ligands can activate heat receptors?
What is the term used to describe the somatotopic map of the body's surface in the primary somatosensory cortex?
What is the term used to describe the somatotopic map of the body's surface in the primary somatosensory cortex?
What is the function of Meissner’s corpuscles?
What is the function of Meissner’s corpuscles?
Which characteristic is common among patients with tactile agnosia?
Which characteristic is common among patients with tactile agnosia?
What is a common treatment for phantom limb pain?
What is a common treatment for phantom limb pain?
Which receptor is responsible for detecting umami flavors?
Which receptor is responsible for detecting umami flavors?
What psychological phenomenon do amputees experience after losing a limb?
What psychological phenomenon do amputees experience after losing a limb?
What is the primary reason most treatments for phantom limb pain have shown limited effectiveness?
What is the primary reason most treatments for phantom limb pain have shown limited effectiveness?
How many different categories of taste receptors have been identified?
How many different categories of taste receptors have been identified?
Which flavor is detected by a metabotropic receptor specifically for sweetness?
Which flavor is detected by a metabotropic receptor specifically for sweetness?
Which somatosensory system is responsible for providing information about internal bodily conditions?
Which somatosensory system is responsible for providing information about internal bodily conditions?
What type of sensory neuron primarily detects temperature and pain?
What type of sensory neuron primarily detects temperature and pain?
Which layer of the skin is primarily associated with the mechanical deformation responsible for touch?
Which layer of the skin is primarily associated with the mechanical deformation responsible for touch?
Which of the following best describes the proprioceptive system?
Which of the following best describes the proprioceptive system?
Which sensation is primarily encoded through the cutaneous senses?
Which sensation is primarily encoded through the cutaneous senses?
Which structure is primarily responsible for the processing of pheromones in mammals?
Which structure is primarily responsible for the processing of pheromones in mammals?
Which of the following types of cutaneous sensations is caused by the mechanical deformation of the skin?
Which of the following types of cutaneous sensations is caused by the mechanical deformation of the skin?
What is the main effect of the Whitten effect in female mice?
What is the main effect of the Whitten effect in female mice?
What factors influence male mice's mating behavior based on pheromone detection?
What factors influence male mice's mating behavior based on pheromone detection?
Where does the epidermis receive its oxygen supply?
Where does the epidermis receive its oxygen supply?
Which of the following pheromone effects involves female mice housed together?
Which of the following pheromone effects involves female mice housed together?
Which type of sensory receptor is sensitive to vibrations when fingers move across a rough surface?
Which type of sensory receptor is sensitive to vibrations when fingers move across a rough surface?
What is true about the vomeronasal organs in humans and birds?
What is true about the vomeronasal organs in humans and birds?
How does the presence of unfamiliar male pheromones impact pregnant female rodents?
How does the presence of unfamiliar male pheromones impact pregnant female rodents?
What type of taste can cats not perceive?
What type of taste can cats not perceive?
How many different types of olfactory receptors do humans express?
How many different types of olfactory receptors do humans express?
Which receptor type is primarily involved in detecting pheromones in mammals?
Which receptor type is primarily involved in detecting pheromones in mammals?
Which structure processes information from a specific type of olfactory receptor cell?
Which structure processes information from a specific type of olfactory receptor cell?
What behavioral modification occurs in female mice when they are taken out of male pheromone influence?
What behavioral modification occurs in female mice when they are taken out of male pheromone influence?
Where does olfactory information first relay in the brain?
Where does olfactory information first relay in the brain?
What is the primary role of pheromones?
What is the primary role of pheromones?
What type of receptors transduce odorants into changes in membrane potential?
What type of receptors transduce odorants into changes in membrane potential?
What determines whether an odor is liked or disliked in humans?
What determines whether an odor is liked or disliked in humans?
What is the role of the primary gustatory cortex?
What is the role of the primary gustatory cortex?
What role does leptin play in the regulation of appetite?
What role does leptin play in the regulation of appetite?
What happens when leptin levels fall below a certain threshold?
What happens when leptin levels fall below a certain threshold?
Which condition can lead to glucoprivation?
Which condition can lead to glucoprivation?
What triggers osmometric thirst?
What triggers osmometric thirst?
What is the effect of exogenous leptin administration in healthy individuals?
What is the effect of exogenous leptin administration in healthy individuals?
What physiological response is triggered by emergency hunger circuits?
What physiological response is triggered by emergency hunger circuits?
Which term describes the movement of water across a membrane that is permeable only to the solvent?
Which term describes the movement of water across a membrane that is permeable only to the solvent?
In which solution will cells experience no net water movement?
In which solution will cells experience no net water movement?
What is associated with congenital leptin deficiency?
What is associated with congenital leptin deficiency?
What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution?
What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution?
Which statement is true regarding lipoprivation?
Which statement is true regarding lipoprivation?
What is a common result of glucoprivation in the body?
What is a common result of glucoprivation in the body?
Why does drinking water result in cells expanding in size?
Why does drinking water result in cells expanding in size?
What does tonicity specifically refer to?
What does tonicity specifically refer to?
What physiological condition is associated with volumetric thirst?
What physiological condition is associated with volumetric thirst?
What role do osmoreceptors play in thirst regulation?
What role do osmoreceptors play in thirst regulation?
What is the composition of one triglyceride molecule?
What is the composition of one triglyceride molecule?
Which hormone increases hunger and food intake when administered exogenously?
Which hormone increases hunger and food intake when administered exogenously?
What is the primary function of the hormones CCK and GLP-1 in the digestive process?
What is the primary function of the hormones CCK and GLP-1 in the digestive process?
What role does glucagon play in energy metabolism?
What role does glucagon play in energy metabolism?
Which of the following is true about the body's response to low blood glucose levels?
Which of the following is true about the body's response to low blood glucose levels?
What is the effect of repeated administration of CCK on food intake?
What is the effect of repeated administration of CCK on food intake?
What consequence does the administration of GLP-1 agonists have?
What consequence does the administration of GLP-1 agonists have?
What physiological signal is primarily involved in communicating an empty stomach to the brain?
What physiological signal is primarily involved in communicating an empty stomach to the brain?
What does homeostasis actively maintain in an animal's body?
What does homeostasis actively maintain in an animal's body?
What physiological response occurs when the body temperature is too cold?
What physiological response occurs when the body temperature is too cold?
Which behavior is part of conscious temperature regulation?
Which behavior is part of conscious temperature regulation?
How do warm-blooded animals respond to overheating?
How do warm-blooded animals respond to overheating?
What is primarily responsible for water loss in humans?
What is primarily responsible for water loss in humans?
What is a need state when temperature becomes uncomfortable?
What is a need state when temperature becomes uncomfortable?
Why are cold-blooded animals limited in their temperature regulation?
Why are cold-blooded animals limited in their temperature regulation?
What happens after a need becomes satisfied regarding the individual's emotions?
What happens after a need becomes satisfied regarding the individual's emotions?
What initiates the cascade of chemical reactions leading to thirst after significant blood loss?
What initiates the cascade of chemical reactions leading to thirst after significant blood loss?
Which brain region is primarily responsible for neural activity related to feelings of thirst?
Which brain region is primarily responsible for neural activity related to feelings of thirst?
What happens to the neural activity in the AV3V region immediately after drinking?
What happens to the neural activity in the AV3V region immediately after drinking?
What causes blood glucose levels to decrease after a meal?
What causes blood glucose levels to decrease after a meal?
Which cells in the body can take in glucose without the presence of insulin?
Which cells in the body can take in glucose without the presence of insulin?
What is the primary role of insulin in relation to fatty acids in the body?
What is the primary role of insulin in relation to fatty acids in the body?
What is the name given to our short-term storage of glucose?
What is the name given to our short-term storage of glucose?
Which hormone is released when blood glucose levels are low?
Which hormone is released when blood glucose levels are low?
What causes intense hunger in individuals with diabetes, regardless of high blood glucose levels?
What causes intense hunger in individuals with diabetes, regardless of high blood glucose levels?
Which neurons in the hypothalamus are stimulated by ghrelin to promote hunger?
Which neurons in the hypothalamus are stimulated by ghrelin to promote hunger?
Which statement correctly describes the role of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) in hunger regulation?
Which statement correctly describes the role of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) in hunger regulation?
What is a common characteristic of Prader-Willi syndrome?
What is a common characteristic of Prader-Willi syndrome?
What initiates a lipoprivation-related feeding emergency?
What initiates a lipoprivation-related feeding emergency?
Which two hormones have opposing effects on the neurons that regulate hunger in the hypothalamus?
Which two hormones have opposing effects on the neurons that regulate hunger in the hypothalamus?
What happens to the feeding behavior when PVN neuron activity is artificially increased?
What happens to the feeding behavior when PVN neuron activity is artificially increased?
What condition can result from untreated type 1 diabetes?
What condition can result from untreated type 1 diabetes?
What role do vasopressin and oxytocin play in the formation of pair bonds?
What role do vasopressin and oxytocin play in the formation of pair bonds?
How does artificially increasing vasopressin and oxytocin receptors in non-monogamous voles affect their behavior?
How does artificially increasing vasopressin and oxytocin receptors in non-monogamous voles affect their behavior?
What is a significant psychological impact of falling in love or experiencing addiction?
What is a significant psychological impact of falling in love or experiencing addiction?
Which statement best explains the motivational processes regulated by the brain during emotional experiences?
Which statement best explains the motivational processes regulated by the brain during emotional experiences?
What can characterize the experience of recovering from a devastating breakup?
What can characterize the experience of recovering from a devastating breakup?
What is the primary trigger for the development of female reproductive anatomy in the absence of anti-Mullerian signaling?
What is the primary trigger for the development of female reproductive anatomy in the absence of anti-Mullerian signaling?
What genetic condition involves the presence of one sex chromosome (X0) and affects gonad development?
What genetic condition involves the presence of one sex chromosome (X0) and affects gonad development?
What critical event marks the start of ovarian function and development of female sex organs?
What critical event marks the start of ovarian function and development of female sex organs?
Which syndrome occurs when an individual has XY chromosomes but a dysfunctional SRY gene?
Which syndrome occurs when an individual has XY chromosomes but a dysfunctional SRY gene?
What effect does the absence of gonads have on an individual?
What effect does the absence of gonads have on an individual?
In the absence of two X chromosomes, which structure is not formed?
In the absence of two X chromosomes, which structure is not formed?
What hormone initiates the signaling for the development of male sex organs?
What hormone initiates the signaling for the development of male sex organs?
What describes the nature of the development of female sex organs in cases of genetic abnormalities like Turner Syndrome?
What describes the nature of the development of female sex organs in cases of genetic abnormalities like Turner Syndrome?
What determines the biological sex of an animal at birth?
What determines the biological sex of an animal at birth?
What is true about gametes in comparison to regular cells in the body?
What is true about gametes in comparison to regular cells in the body?
How do the innate behaviors of individuals relate to cultural values?
How do the innate behaviors of individuals relate to cultural values?
Which of the following is NOT a factor used to determine biological sex?
Which of the following is NOT a factor used to determine biological sex?
Which statement is correct regarding the fusion of gametes?
Which statement is correct regarding the fusion of gametes?
What is the primary role of sex hormones in sexual development?
What is the primary role of sex hormones in sexual development?
Which of the following statements about intelligence is true?
Which of the following statements about intelligence is true?
Which of the following best describes gametes?
Which of the following best describes gametes?
What typically causes undifferentiated fetal gonads to develop into testes?
What typically causes undifferentiated fetal gonads to develop into testes?
Which system develops in the absence of testicular function in early fetal development?
Which system develops in the absence of testicular function in early fetal development?
What is the principal effect of anti-Müllerian hormone in males during development?
What is the principal effect of anti-Müllerian hormone in males during development?
What effect does the absence of testosterone have on sperm production in males?
What effect does the absence of testosterone have on sperm production in males?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the physical features characteristic of females?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the physical features characteristic of females?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the masculinizing effect during early development?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the masculinizing effect during early development?
What condition arises when atypical combinations result in the inability to be distinctly male or female?
What condition arises when atypical combinations result in the inability to be distinctly male or female?
How do estrous cycles differ from menstrual cycles in most mammals?
How do estrous cycles differ from menstrual cycles in most mammals?
What describes the sexual activity patterns of animals with estrous cycles?
What describes the sexual activity patterns of animals with estrous cycles?
What happens to the Wolffian system if the SRY gene is expressed and testes develop?
What happens to the Wolffian system if the SRY gene is expressed and testes develop?
Which hormone is released by the testes and leads to the development of male external sex organs?
Which hormone is released by the testes and leads to the development of male external sex organs?
What role does progesterone play in the female reproductive cycle?
What role does progesterone play in the female reproductive cycle?
What is true about sexual behavior during the menstrual cycle in humans compared to the estrous cycle?
What is true about sexual behavior during the menstrual cycle in humans compared to the estrous cycle?
What is the role of androgens in the development of male sex organs?
What is the role of androgens in the development of male sex organs?
How do ovarian hormones influence sexual behavior in females?
How do ovarian hormones influence sexual behavior in females?
What aspect of hormonal control continues after birth in rodents?
What aspect of hormonal control continues after birth in rodents?
What can insufficient anti-Müllerian hormone signaling lead to in terms of sexual organ development?
What can insufficient anti-Müllerian hormone signaling lead to in terms of sexual organ development?
What is the result of insufficient androgen signaling in individuals with androgen insensitivity syndrome?
What is the result of insufficient androgen signaling in individuals with androgen insensitivity syndrome?
Which condition is characterized by both male and female sexual organ development due to hormonal signaling issues?
Which condition is characterized by both male and female sexual organ development due to hormonal signaling issues?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the defeminization process during male development?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the defeminization process during male development?
How do organizational sex hormones affect the body's development?
How do organizational sex hormones affect the body's development?
What hormonal insufficiency leads to the absence of typical male internal sex organs?
What hormonal insufficiency leads to the absence of typical male internal sex organs?
Individuals with typical genetic X and Y chromosomes may experience female-typical development due to what condition?
Individuals with typical genetic X and Y chromosomes may experience female-typical development due to what condition?
Which condition can result from having an SRY gene combined with two or more X chromosomes?
Which condition can result from having an SRY gene combined with two or more X chromosomes?
Which type of brain activity is characterized by frequencies of 13-30 Hz and is typical of an aroused state?
Which type of brain activity is characterized by frequencies of 13-30 Hz and is typical of an aroused state?
What does the electromyogram (EMG) specifically measure during sleep research?
What does the electromyogram (EMG) specifically measure during sleep research?
Which of the following activities is most prominent during the early stages of sleep?
Which of the following activities is most prominent during the early stages of sleep?
To measure eye movements in a sleep study, which method is employed?
To measure eye movements in a sleep study, which method is employed?
What is the frequency range of alpha activity, which indicates a state of relaxation in awake individuals?
What is the frequency range of alpha activity, which indicates a state of relaxation in awake individuals?
What is characterized as difficulty falling asleep or waking during the night?
What is characterized as difficulty falling asleep or waking during the night?
Fatal Familial Insomnia is primarily associated with which part of the brain?
Fatal Familial Insomnia is primarily associated with which part of the brain?
What disorder involves acting out dreams due to a lack of paralysis during REM sleep?
What disorder involves acting out dreams due to a lack of paralysis during REM sleep?
Which of the following is NOT classified as a non-REM parasomnia?
Which of the following is NOT classified as a non-REM parasomnia?
Which condition is characterized by overwhelming feelings of terror upon waking?
Which condition is characterized by overwhelming feelings of terror upon waking?
In the context of learning and memory, what do we refer to the changes due to experiences?
In the context of learning and memory, what do we refer to the changes due to experiences?
Which statement about memory retrieval is accurate?
Which statement about memory retrieval is accurate?
Which statement about the prevalence of insomnia is true?
Which statement about the prevalence of insomnia is true?
What occurs to the motor neuron response after habituation of the gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia?
What occurs to the motor neuron response after habituation of the gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia?
What change occurs in the presynaptic neuron of Aplysia after habituation?
What change occurs in the presynaptic neuron of Aplysia after habituation?
How does sensitization in Aplysia differ from habituation?
How does sensitization in Aplysia differ from habituation?
What happens to the postsynaptic receptor sites after habituation in the gill withdrawal reflex?
What happens to the postsynaptic receptor sites after habituation in the gill withdrawal reflex?
Which statement about the gill withdrawal reflex is true in terms of synaptic strength after sensitization?
Which statement about the gill withdrawal reflex is true in terms of synaptic strength after sensitization?
In terms of the sensory neuron after habituation, what remains unchanged?
In terms of the sensory neuron after habituation, what remains unchanged?
What primarily characterizes the long-term physical changes in synaptic connections in Aplysia?
What primarily characterizes the long-term physical changes in synaptic connections in Aplysia?
Following habituation, what can be inferred about the overall capability of the gill's response to action potentials?
Following habituation, what can be inferred about the overall capability of the gill's response to action potentials?
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
Which frequency of stimulation is typically used to elicit long-term potentiation?
Which frequency of stimulation is typically used to elicit long-term potentiation?
What is long-term depression (LTD)?
What is long-term depression (LTD)?
Which type of stimulation typically induces long-term depression?
Which type of stimulation typically induces long-term depression?
Which molecule is released during long-term potentiation that triggers changes on the presynaptic side?
Which molecule is released during long-term potentiation that triggers changes on the presynaptic side?
What characterizes the postsynaptic changes during long-term potentiation?
What characterizes the postsynaptic changes during long-term potentiation?
What effect does low-frequency stimulation have on a neuron when inducing long-term depression?
What effect does low-frequency stimulation have on a neuron when inducing long-term depression?
Which of the following is a characteristic of long-term depression?
Which of the following is a characteristic of long-term depression?
What encompasses the concept of neuronal plasticity?
What encompasses the concept of neuronal plasticity?
Which factor is primarily measured to assess intrinsic excitability of a neuron?
Which factor is primarily measured to assess intrinsic excitability of a neuron?
Synaptic plasticity can involve changes in which of the following?
Synaptic plasticity can involve changes in which of the following?
What physiological factor greatly influences neuronal excitability?
What physiological factor greatly influences neuronal excitability?
What is the effect of having fewer potassium leak channels on a neuron's excitability?
What is the effect of having fewer potassium leak channels on a neuron's excitability?
What indicates synaptic strengthening in a postsynaptic neuron?
What indicates synaptic strengthening in a postsynaptic neuron?
Changes in the number of which structures can affect synaptic plasticity?
Changes in the number of which structures can affect synaptic plasticity?
When measuring synaptic strength, what type of response is identified when a presynaptic neuron has an action potential?
When measuring synaptic strength, what type of response is identified when a presynaptic neuron has an action potential?
What is a major mechanism for initiating long-term depression (LTD)?
What is a major mechanism for initiating long-term depression (LTD)?
What is the role of NMDA receptors in synaptic plasticity?
What is the role of NMDA receptors in synaptic plasticity?
What frequency of stimulation is commonly used to induce LTD?
What frequency of stimulation is commonly used to induce LTD?
How does low-frequency stimulation affect postsynaptic neuron firing?
How does low-frequency stimulation affect postsynaptic neuron firing?
What happens to Mg2+ ions in the NMDA receptor during hyperpolarization?
What happens to Mg2+ ions in the NMDA receptor during hyperpolarization?
What condition promotes long-term potentiation (LTP) at synapses?
What condition promotes long-term potentiation (LTP) at synapses?
During what condition will NMDA receptors primarily allow current flow?
During what condition will NMDA receptors primarily allow current flow?
What is the expected outcome of stimulation at approximately 100 Hz?
What is the expected outcome of stimulation at approximately 100 Hz?
What condition is necessary for NMDA receptors to be permeable to Na+ and Ca2+ ions?
What condition is necessary for NMDA receptors to be permeable to Na+ and Ca2+ ions?
What is the primary function of AMPA receptors in the brain?
What is the primary function of AMPA receptors in the brain?
How does CaMKII contribute to long-term potentiation at glutamate synapses?
How does CaMKII contribute to long-term potentiation at glutamate synapses?
What does Hebb's rule suggest about the relationship between synaptic activity and learning?
What does Hebb's rule suggest about the relationship between synaptic activity and learning?
What feature of dendritic spines correlates with synaptic strength at glutamatergic synapses?
What feature of dendritic spines correlates with synaptic strength at glutamatergic synapses?
Why do NMDA receptors get clogged by Mg2+ ions when a neuron is hyperpolarized?
Why do NMDA receptors get clogged by Mg2+ ions when a neuron is hyperpolarized?
What role does long-term potentiation play in synaptic plasticity?
What role does long-term potentiation play in synaptic plasticity?
What ion the NMDA receptors specifically opens the path for, aside from Na+?
What ion the NMDA receptors specifically opens the path for, aside from Na+?
What is the primary characteristic of most synapses in the brain?
What is the primary characteristic of most synapses in the brain?
What is the best approach to prepare for the midterm exam as stated in the instructions?
What is the best approach to prepare for the midterm exam as stated in the instructions?
How long is the midterm exam expected to take?
How long is the midterm exam expected to take?
What seating arrangement is suggested during the midterm exam?
What seating arrangement is suggested during the midterm exam?
What is required to bring to the midterm exam?
What is required to bring to the midterm exam?
What information is provided about the exam's start time?
What information is provided about the exam's start time?
On which date is the midterm exam scheduled to take place?
On which date is the midterm exam scheduled to take place?
What is the nature of the questions that will be included in the midterm exam?
What is the nature of the questions that will be included in the midterm exam?
What process describes improvements in motor behavior following a period of memory consolidation?
What process describes improvements in motor behavior following a period of memory consolidation?
What is the primary contribution of perceptual learning?
What is the primary contribution of perceptual learning?
Which brain areas are associated with motor learning?
Which brain areas are associated with motor learning?
What is a major consequence of damage to the sensory association cortex?
What is a major consequence of damage to the sensory association cortex?
What role do associations play in perceptual learning?
What role do associations play in perceptual learning?
What is the main effect of reinforcement on an animal's behavior?
What is the main effect of reinforcement on an animal's behavior?
Which structure in the brain plays a key role in automating stimulus-response behaviors?
Which structure in the brain plays a key role in automating stimulus-response behaviors?
What type of amnesia is characterized by the inability to form new memories after an event, while retaining some old memories?
What type of amnesia is characterized by the inability to form new memories after an event, while retaining some old memories?
Which memory type is generally intact after hippocampal damage, despite damage affecting episodic memories?
Which memory type is generally intact after hippocampal damage, despite damage affecting episodic memories?
How does dopamine signaling influence habit learning?
How does dopamine signaling influence habit learning?
What phenomenon describes the unintentional creation of false memories in people with Korsakoff's syndrome?
What phenomenon describes the unintentional creation of false memories in people with Korsakoff's syndrome?
What happens to the decision-making process when successful behaviors are repeated multiple times?
What happens to the decision-making process when successful behaviors are repeated multiple times?
What typically happens to episodic memories formed prior to hippocampal damage?
What typically happens to episodic memories formed prior to hippocampal damage?
What does reinforcement learning alter in neural circuits?
What does reinforcement learning alter in neural circuits?
Which components make up the main pathways between sensory and motor cortices?
Which components make up the main pathways between sensory and motor cortices?
Which condition is often linked to permanent anterograde amnesia due to chronic alcoholism?
Which condition is often linked to permanent anterograde amnesia due to chronic alcoholism?
What is the role of dopamine neurons in the midbrain related to reinforcement?
What is the role of dopamine neurons in the midbrain related to reinforcement?
What is the common impact of a strong blow to the head related to amnesia?
What is the common impact of a strong blow to the head related to amnesia?
What defines habitual behaviors in terms of conscious awareness?
What defines habitual behaviors in terms of conscious awareness?
Which aspect of memory remains generally unaffected in individuals who have experienced hippocampal damage?
Which aspect of memory remains generally unaffected in individuals who have experienced hippocampal damage?
Which type of amnesia is typically seen in individuals with significant bilateral hippocampal damage after surgery?
Which type of amnesia is typically seen in individuals with significant bilateral hippocampal damage after surgery?
What happens to weak excitatory synapses when they are consistently active during postsynaptic cell spiking?
What happens to weak excitatory synapses when they are consistently active during postsynaptic cell spiking?
Which type of memory is characterized by unconscious influences on behavior?
Which type of memory is characterized by unconscious influences on behavior?
Which of the following describes explicitly accessible memories that can be consciously thought about?
Which of the following describes explicitly accessible memories that can be consciously thought about?
What is a common example of implicit memory?
What is a common example of implicit memory?
What type of explicit memory involves autobiographical details tied to specific times and places?
What type of explicit memory involves autobiographical details tied to specific times and places?
How do synapses typically respond when their activity does not correlate positively with postsynaptic spiking?
How do synapses typically respond when their activity does not correlate positively with postsynaptic spiking?
Which of the following best describes semantic memory?
Which of the following best describes semantic memory?
Which statement best explains the monitoring role of enzymes at synapses?
Which statement best explains the monitoring role of enzymes at synapses?
What is the primary function of motor learning?
What is the primary function of motor learning?
Which area of the brain is primarily involved in relational learning?
Which area of the brain is primarily involved in relational learning?
What describes sensory memory?
What describes sensory memory?
Which type of learning involves the acquisition of responses to stimuli?
Which type of learning involves the acquisition of responses to stimuli?
Which of the following best describes short-term memory?
Which of the following best describes short-term memory?
What is a key characteristic of perceptual learning?
What is a key characteristic of perceptual learning?
How can long-term memory be strengthened?
How can long-term memory be strengthened?
Which type of learning is primarily dependent on the neocortex?
Which type of learning is primarily dependent on the neocortex?
Flashcards
Brightness in Color Perception
Brightness in Color Perception
The intensity or luminance of light; the amount of light present.
Saturation in Color Perception
Saturation in Color Perception
The purity of a color, determined by the proportion of different wavelengths in the light.
Hue in Color Perception
Hue in Color Perception
The dominant wavelength or color of light, measured in degrees (0-360).
Protanopia
Protanopia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Deuteranopia
Deuteranopia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Color Vision Deficiency
Color Vision Deficiency
Signup and view all the flashcards
Grayscale Image (in Color perception)
Grayscale Image (in Color perception)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Color Cone Opsin Absence
Color Cone Opsin Absence
Signup and view all the flashcards
What causes Protanopia?
What causes Protanopia?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are individuals with Deuteranopia unable to distinguish?
What are individuals with Deuteranopia unable to distinguish?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Achromatopsia
Achromatopsia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Rod cells
Rod cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cone cells
Cone cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Visible light
Visible light
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do individuals with Protanopia see colors?
How do individuals with Protanopia see colors?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Trichromatic Coding
Trichromatic Coding
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cone Cell Sensitivity
Cone Cell Sensitivity
Signup and view all the flashcards
Color Perception as Ratio
Color Perception as Ratio
Signup and view all the flashcards
Additive Color Mixing
Additive Color Mixing
Signup and view all the flashcards
Subtractive Color Mixing
Subtractive Color Mixing
Signup and view all the flashcards
Primary Colors of Light
Primary Colors of Light
Signup and view all the flashcards
Primary Colors of Paint
Primary Colors of Paint
Signup and view all the flashcards
Why is yellow the primary color of paint?
Why is yellow the primary color of paint?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Photoreceptor Cell Polarization
Photoreceptor Cell Polarization
Signup and view all the flashcards
Dark Current
Dark Current
Signup and view all the flashcards
What happens when light hits opsin?
What happens when light hits opsin?
Signup and view all the flashcards
OFF Bipolar Cells
OFF Bipolar Cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
ON Bipolar Cells
ON Bipolar Cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Types of Glutamate Receptors
Types of Glutamate Receptors
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the role of glutamate in the retina?
What is the role of glutamate in the retina?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Do photoreceptor cells and bipolar cells have action potentials?
Do photoreceptor cells and bipolar cells have action potentials?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What happens to ON bipolar cells in the dark?
What happens to ON bipolar cells in the dark?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the difference between ON and OFF bipolar cells?
What is the difference between ON and OFF bipolar cells?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What do horizontal cells do?
What do horizontal cells do?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do horizontal cells affect photoreceptor cells?
How do horizontal cells affect photoreceptor cells?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What type of cell releases glutamate?
What type of cell releases glutamate?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does glutamate release vary?
How does glutamate release vary?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the receptive field of a bipolar cell?
What is the receptive field of a bipolar cell?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do ON bipolar cells respond?
How do ON bipolar cells respond?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do OFF bipolar cells respond?
How do OFF bipolar cells respond?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How are retinal ganglion cells different from photoreceptor and bipolar cells?
How are retinal ganglion cells different from photoreceptor and bipolar cells?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What kind of receptive field do ganglion cells have?
What kind of receptive field do ganglion cells have?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do ON retinal ganglion cells respond to light?
How do ON retinal ganglion cells respond to light?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are ON-center retinal ganglion cells sensitive to?
What are ON-center retinal ganglion cells sensitive to?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are OFF-center retinal ganglion cells sensitive to?
What are OFF-center retinal ganglion cells sensitive to?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What happens when light fills the entire receptive field of an OFF-center retinal ganglion cell?
What happens when light fills the entire receptive field of an OFF-center retinal ganglion cell?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How are receptive fields of bipolar cells defined?
How are receptive fields of bipolar cells defined?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Where do bipolar cells receive direct synaptic input from?
Where do bipolar cells receive direct synaptic input from?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the function of retinal ganglion cells?
What is the function of retinal ganglion cells?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Where do retinal ganglion cells send information?
Where do retinal ganglion cells send information?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the role of thalamic neurons in vision?
What is the role of thalamic neurons in vision?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Striate Cortex
Striate Cortex
Signup and view all the flashcards
Extrastriate Cortex
Extrastriate Cortex
Signup and view all the flashcards
Dorsal Stream
Dorsal Stream
Signup and view all the flashcards
Ventral Stream
Ventral Stream
Signup and view all the flashcards
Depth Perception
Depth Perception
Signup and view all the flashcards
Monocular Cues
Monocular Cues
Signup and view all the flashcards
Stereopsis
Stereopsis
Signup and view all the flashcards
Agnosia
Agnosia
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is agnosia?
What is agnosia?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What's the difference between blindness and visual agnosia?
What's the difference between blindness and visual agnosia?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is akinetopsia?
What is akinetopsia?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cerebral achromatopsia
Cerebral achromatopsia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Prosopagnosia
Prosopagnosia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cochlea
Cochlea
Signup and view all the flashcards
Basilar Membrane
Basilar Membrane
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hair Cells
Hair Cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Tectorial Membrane
Tectorial Membrane
Signup and view all the flashcards
Organ of Corti
Organ of Corti
Signup and view all the flashcards
What frequency does the basilar membrane vibrate most strongly to?
What frequency does the basilar membrane vibrate most strongly to?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do hair cells transduce sound signals?
How do hair cells transduce sound signals?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What differentiates inner and outer hair cells?
What differentiates inner and outer hair cells?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Inner hair cells
Inner hair cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Outer hair cells
Outer hair cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Tip links
Tip links
Signup and view all the flashcards
Place coding
Place coding
Signup and view all the flashcards
Rate coding
Rate coding
Signup and view all the flashcards
Loud noise and hair cells
Loud noise and hair cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hair cell cilia bending
Hair cell cilia bending
Signup and view all the flashcards
What determines the perceived loudness of a sound?
What determines the perceived loudness of a sound?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is timbre?
What is timbre?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Fundamental Frequency
Fundamental Frequency
Signup and view all the flashcards
Overtones
Overtones
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do outer hair cells contribute to hearing?
How do outer hair cells contribute to hearing?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the role of inner hair cells in hearing?
What is the role of inner hair cells in hearing?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are overtones?
What are overtones?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do cochlear implants work?
How do cochlear implants work?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are interaural cues?
What are interaural cues?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do we localize high frequency sounds?
How do we localize high frequency sounds?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do we localize low frequency sounds?
How do we localize low frequency sounds?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do we identify the height of a sound?
How do we identify the height of a sound?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the fundamental frequency?
What is the fundamental frequency?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Tonotopic Representation
Tonotopic Representation
Signup and view all the flashcards
Auditory Cortex
Auditory Cortex
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cochlear Nuclei
Cochlear Nuclei
Signup and view all the flashcards
Superior Olivary Nuclei
Superior Olivary Nuclei
Signup and view all the flashcards
Inferior Colliculi
Inferior Colliculi
Signup and view all the flashcards
Medial Geniculate Nucleus
Medial Geniculate Nucleus
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the pathway of auditory information from the ear to the auditory cortex?
What is the pathway of auditory information from the ear to the auditory cortex?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Auditory Association Cortex
Auditory Association Cortex
Signup and view all the flashcards
What & Where Streams For Sounds
What & Where Streams For Sounds
Signup and view all the flashcards
Auditory Agnosia
Auditory Agnosia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Vestibular System
Vestibular System
Signup and view all the flashcards
Somatosensory System
Somatosensory System
Signup and view all the flashcards
Exteroceptive System
Exteroceptive System
Signup and view all the flashcards
Interoceptive System
Interoceptive System
Signup and view all the flashcards
Proprioceptive System
Proprioceptive System
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cutaneous Senses
Cutaneous Senses
Signup and view all the flashcards
Merkel's Disks
Merkel's Disks
Signup and view all the flashcards
Ruffini Corpuscles
Ruffini Corpuscles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Free Nerve Endings
Free Nerve Endings
Signup and view all the flashcards
Somatosensory Homunculus
Somatosensory Homunculus
Signup and view all the flashcards
Tactile Agnosia
Tactile Agnosia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Phantom Limb
Phantom Limb
Signup and view all the flashcards
Umami taste receptor
Umami taste receptor
Signup and view all the flashcards
Sweet taste receptors
Sweet taste receptors
Signup and view all the flashcards
Bitter taste receptors
Bitter taste receptors
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are the six categories of taste?
What are the six categories of taste?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does gustatory information reach the brain?
How does gustatory information reach the brain?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Kinesthetic sense
Kinesthetic sense
Signup and view all the flashcards
Meissner's corpuscles
Meissner's corpuscles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Pacinian corpuscles
Pacinian corpuscles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Pain receptors (nociceptors)
Pain receptors (nociceptors)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Spinothalamic tract
Spinothalamic tract
Signup and view all the flashcards
Dorsal column
Dorsal column
Signup and view all the flashcards
Thalamus
Thalamus
Signup and view all the flashcards
Primary somatosensory cortex
Primary somatosensory cortex
Signup and view all the flashcards
Saltiness
Saltiness
Signup and view all the flashcards
Sourness
Sourness
Signup and view all the flashcards
Fat
Fat
Signup and view all the flashcards
Taste Receptor Cells
Taste Receptor Cells
Signup and view all the flashcards
Why are Taste Receptor Cells Replaced Regularly?
Why are Taste Receptor Cells Replaced Regularly?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do scientists study the taste system?
How do scientists study the taste system?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Innate Taste Preferences
Innate Taste Preferences
Signup and view all the flashcards
Acquired Taste
Acquired Taste
Signup and view all the flashcards
Pheromones
Pheromones
Signup and view all the flashcards
Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Lee-Boot Effect
Lee-Boot Effect
Signup and view all the flashcards
Whitten Effect
Whitten Effect
Signup and view all the flashcards
Vandenbergh Effect
Vandenbergh Effect
Signup and view all the flashcards
Bruce Effect
Bruce Effect
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do pheromones in mammals work?
How do pheromones in mammals work?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are humans missing that other mammals have?
What are humans missing that other mammals have?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is olfaction?
What is olfaction?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are odorant molecules?
What are odorant molecules?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are olfactory receptor cells?
What are olfactory receptor cells?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the olfactory bulb?
What is the olfactory bulb?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do we recognize so many different odors?
How do we recognize so many different odors?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are pheromones?
What are pheromones?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How are pheromones different from other odors?
How are pheromones different from other odors?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Why is the existence of pheromones in humans controversial?
Why is the existence of pheromones in humans controversial?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Signup and view all the flashcards
Endotherm
Endotherm
Signup and view all the flashcards
Ectotherm
Ectotherm
Signup and view all the flashcards
Need State
Need State
Signup and view all the flashcards
Fluid Loss
Fluid Loss
Signup and view all the flashcards
Thirst
Thirst
Signup and view all the flashcards
Peripheral Blood Vessels
Peripheral Blood Vessels
Signup and view all the flashcards
Basal Metabolic Rate
Basal Metabolic Rate
Signup and view all the flashcards
Osmometric thirst
Osmometric thirst
Signup and view all the flashcards
Volumetric thirst
Volumetric thirst
Signup and view all the flashcards
Tonicity
Tonicity
Signup and view all the flashcards
Isotonic solution
Isotonic solution
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hypotonic solution
Hypotonic solution
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hypertonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Signup and view all the flashcards
Osmoreceptors
Osmoreceptors
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do osmoreceptors work?
How do osmoreceptors work?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Renin
Renin
Signup and view all the flashcards
AV3V Region
AV3V Region
Signup and view all the flashcards
Insulin
Insulin
Signup and view all the flashcards
Glucagon
Glucagon
Signup and view all the flashcards
Glycogen
Glycogen
Signup and view all the flashcards
Triglycerides
Triglycerides
Signup and view all the flashcards
Triglycerides: Energy Storage
Triglycerides: Energy Storage
Signup and view all the flashcards
Glucagon: Breaking Down Triglycerides
Glucagon: Breaking Down Triglycerides
Signup and view all the flashcards
Glycerol to Sugar
Glycerol to Sugar
Signup and view all the flashcards
Fatty Acids to Ketones
Fatty Acids to Ketones
Signup and view all the flashcards
Ghrelin: Hunger Signal
Ghrelin: Hunger Signal
Signup and view all the flashcards
CCK and GLP-1: Satiety Signals
CCK and GLP-1: Satiety Signals
Signup and view all the flashcards
GLP-1 Agonists: Weight Loss?
GLP-1 Agonists: Weight Loss?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Long-Term Fat Monitoring
Long-Term Fat Monitoring
Signup and view all the flashcards
Diabetes effect on hunger
Diabetes effect on hunger
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hypothalamus role in hunger?
Hypothalamus role in hunger?
Signup and view all the flashcards
AGRP/NPY neurons
AGRP/NPY neurons
Signup and view all the flashcards
POMC neurons
POMC neurons
Signup and view all the flashcards
Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)
Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does leptin affect hunger?
How does leptin affect hunger?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does ghrelin affect hunger?
How does ghrelin affect hunger?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Leptin: What is it?
Leptin: What is it?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Leptin Deficiency: What happens?
Leptin Deficiency: What happens?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Emergency Hunger: When does it happen?
Emergency Hunger: When does it happen?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Glucoprivation: What is it?
Glucoprivation: What is it?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Lipoprivation: What is it?
Lipoprivation: What is it?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Emergency Hunger: What does it do?
Emergency Hunger: What does it do?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Insulin and Glucagon in Emergency Hunger: What happens?
Insulin and Glucagon in Emergency Hunger: What happens?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Short-Term Satiety Ignored: What does this mean?
Short-Term Satiety Ignored: What does this mean?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What determines biological sex?
What determines biological sex?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is socialization?
What is socialization?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Why is biology not enough to judge behavior?
Why is biology not enough to judge behavior?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are gametes?
What are gametes?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are sex chromosomes?
What are sex chromosomes?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do sex chromosomes differ from other cells?
How do sex chromosomes differ from other cells?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is sex determination?
What is sex determination?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Are biological traits inherently good or bad?
Are biological traits inherently good or bad?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Undifferentiated Gonads
Undifferentiated Gonads
Signup and view all the flashcards
Müllerian System
Müllerian System
Signup and view all the flashcards
Wolffian System
Wolffian System
Signup and view all the flashcards
SRY gene
SRY gene
Signup and view all the flashcards
Anti-Müllerian Hormone
Anti-Müllerian Hormone
Signup and view all the flashcards
Androgens
Androgens
Signup and view all the flashcards
Defeminizing Effect
Defeminizing Effect
Signup and view all the flashcards
Masculinizing Effect
Masculinizing Effect
Signup and view all the flashcards
XX chromosome
XX chromosome
Signup and view all the flashcards
Turner Syndrome
Turner Syndrome
Signup and view all the flashcards
Swyer Syndrome
Swyer Syndrome
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do ovaries develop?
How do ovaries develop?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Why are individuals with Turner or Swyer Syndrome infertile?
Why are individuals with Turner or Swyer Syndrome infertile?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Puberty in females
Puberty in females
Signup and view all the flashcards
Are individuals with Swyer or Turner Syndrome capable of puberty?
Are individuals with Swyer or Turner Syndrome capable of puberty?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
Signup and view all the flashcards
Organizational Sex Hormones
Organizational Sex Hormones
Signup and view all the flashcards
Insufficient Anti-Müllerian Hormone
Insufficient Anti-Müllerian Hormone
Signup and view all the flashcards
Insufficient Androgen Signaling
Insufficient Androgen Signaling
Signup and view all the flashcards
Testicular Hormone Production
Testicular Hormone Production
Signup and view all the flashcards
Testosterone and Male Fertility
Testosterone and Male Fertility
Signup and view all the flashcards
Testosterone and Sexual Behavior
Testosterone and Sexual Behavior
Signup and view all the flashcards
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Antagonist Effect
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Antagonist Effect
Signup and view all the flashcards
Estrogen's Role in Female Maturation
Estrogen's Role in Female Maturation
Signup and view all the flashcards
Estradiol: The Key Estrogen
Estradiol: The Key Estrogen
Signup and view all the flashcards
Control of Female Reproductive Cycles
Control of Female Reproductive Cycles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Menstrual Cycle: Primate-Specific
Menstrual Cycle: Primate-Specific
Signup and view all the flashcards
Estrous Cycle: Heat in Other Mammals
Estrous Cycle: Heat in Other Mammals
Signup and view all the flashcards
Pair Bonds and Brain Chemicals
Pair Bonds and Brain Chemicals
Signup and view all the flashcards
Vole Pair Bonding
Vole Pair Bonding
Signup and view all the flashcards
Priorities and Emotional Learning
Priorities and Emotional Learning
Signup and view all the flashcards
Addiction and Broken Hearts
Addiction and Broken Hearts
Signup and view all the flashcards
Brain Areas for Priorities
Brain Areas for Priorities
Signup and view all the flashcards
Beta Activity
Beta Activity
Signup and view all the flashcards
Alpha Activity
Alpha Activity
Signup and view all the flashcards
Insomnia
Insomnia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Fatal Familial Insomnia
Fatal Familial Insomnia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Non-REM Parasomnias
Non-REM Parasomnias
Signup and view all the flashcards
Sleep Terrors
Sleep Terrors
Signup and view all the flashcards
REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder
REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder
Signup and view all the flashcards
Learning
Learning
Signup and view all the flashcards
Memory
Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
Memory Retrieval
Memory Retrieval
Signup and view all the flashcards
Habituation
Habituation
Signup and view all the flashcards
Sensitization
Sensitization
Signup and view all the flashcards
Gill Withdrawal Reflex
Gill Withdrawal Reflex
Signup and view all the flashcards
Synaptic Plasticity
Synaptic Plasticity
Signup and view all the flashcards
Presynaptic Changes
Presynaptic Changes
Signup and view all the flashcards
Postsynaptic Changes
Postsynaptic Changes
Signup and view all the flashcards
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Long-Term Depression (LTD)
Long-Term Depression (LTD)
Signup and view all the flashcards
Neuronal Plasticity
Neuronal Plasticity
Signup and view all the flashcards
Intrinsic Excitability
Intrinsic Excitability
Signup and view all the flashcards
Synaptic Strength
Synaptic Strength
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is measured in brain slice recordings?
What is measured in brain slice recordings?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How is Intrinsic Excitability Measured?
How is Intrinsic Excitability Measured?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What Impacts Intrinsic Excitability?
What Impacts Intrinsic Excitability?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Pre- and Postsynaptic Changes
Pre- and Postsynaptic Changes
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is synaptic plasticity?
What is synaptic plasticity?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)?
What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is Long-Term Depression (LTD)?
What is Long-Term Depression (LTD)?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are retrograde signaling molecules?
What are retrograde signaling molecules?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the role of nitric oxide (NO) in LTP?
What is the role of nitric oxide (NO) in LTP?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the role of endocannabinoids in LTD?
What is the role of endocannabinoids in LTD?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does LTP affect synaptic strength?
How does LTP affect synaptic strength?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does LTD affect synaptic strength?
How does LTD affect synaptic strength?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is LTD?
What is LTD?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does LTD affect the synapse?
How does LTD affect the synapse?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the NMDA receptor?
What is the NMDA receptor?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the role of Mg2+ in NMDA receptors?
What is the role of Mg2+ in NMDA receptors?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does LTP occur?
How does LTP occur?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What makes LTP and LTD different?
What makes LTP and LTD different?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Why is the NMDA receptor important for learning?
Why is the NMDA receptor important for learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the function of retrograde signaling?
What is the function of retrograde signaling?
Signup and view all the flashcards
NMDA Receptor
NMDA Receptor
Signup and view all the flashcards
AMPA Receptor
AMPA Receptor
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is CaMKII?
What is CaMKII?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is Hebb's Rule?
What is Hebb's Rule?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Associative Long-Term Potentiation
Associative Long-Term Potentiation
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is a Dendritic Spine?
What is a Dendritic Spine?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Types of Synaptic Plasticity
Types of Synaptic Plasticity
Signup and view all the flashcards
Implicit Memory
Implicit Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
Explicit Memory
Explicit Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
Episodic Memory
Episodic Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
Semantic Memory
Semantic Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
What strengthens an excitatory synapse?
What strengthens an excitatory synapse?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What weakens an excitatory synapse?
What weakens an excitatory synapse?
Signup and view all the flashcards
How are memories stored?
How are memories stored?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Motor Learning
Motor Learning
Signup and view all the flashcards
Perceptual Learning
Perceptual Learning
Signup and view all the flashcards
Visual Agnosia
Visual Agnosia
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are the brain areas involved in motor learning?
What are the brain areas involved in motor learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are the changes associated with perceptual learning?
What are the changes associated with perceptual learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Types of Learning
Types of Learning
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is the importance of brain plasticity in learning?
What is the importance of brain plasticity in learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are the three main stages of memory?
What are the three main stages of memory?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is associative learning?
What is associative learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is non-associative learning?
What is non-associative learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is observational learning?
What is observational learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is motor learning?
What is motor learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is perceptual learning?
What is perceptual learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is relational learning?
What is relational learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
Short-Term Memory
Short-Term Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
Long-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
What are the different types of memory?
What are the different types of memory?
Signup and view all the flashcards
What is Stimulus-Response Learning?
What is Stimulus-Response Learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Signup and view all the flashcards
Punishment
Punishment
Signup and view all the flashcards
How do neural circuits change during learning?
How do neural circuits change during learning?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Direct transcortical connections
Direct transcortical connections
Signup and view all the flashcards
Basal ganglia
Basal ganglia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Dopamine in habit learning
Dopamine in habit learning
Signup and view all the flashcards
Striatum
Striatum
Signup and view all the flashcards
How does punishment affect dopamine?
How does punishment affect dopamine?
Signup and view all the flashcards
Anterograde Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Retrograde Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia
Signup and view all the flashcards
H.M.'s Amnesia
H.M.'s Amnesia
Signup and view all the flashcards
Korsakoff's Syndrome
Korsakoff's Syndrome
Signup and view all the flashcards
Confabulation
Confabulation
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hippocampus Role in Memory
Hippocampus Role in Memory
Signup and view all the flashcards
Study Notes
Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211
- Lecture 9 of 24, focusing on vision (part 1 or 2)
- Professor Jonathan Britt
- Contact information provided for questions/concerns
Sensation vs. Perception
- Sensation: How nervous system cells detect stimuli (light, sound, heat) and convert them into changes in membrane potential and neurotransmitter release.
- Perception: The conscious experience and interpretation of sensory information.
Sensory Neurons
- Specialized cells detecting specific physical events:
- Presence of molecules (smell, taste, nausea, pain)
- Physical pressure (touch, stretch, vibration, acceleration, gravity, balance, hearing, thirst, pain)
- Temperature (heat, cold, pain)
- pH of a liquid (sour taste, suffocation, pain)
- Electromagnetic radiation (light - vision)
- Some non-human animals have additional senses (e.g., electric/magnetic fields, humidity, water pressure)
Sensory Transduction
- Sensory neurons have specialized receptors that convert sensory stimuli into changes in membrane potential.
- Sensory neurons vary in shape and size.
- Many sensory neurons lack axons and action potentials, but they all release neurotransmitters.
- Neurotransmitter release occurs in a graded fashion, depending on the membrane potential; greater depolarization leads to more neurotransmitter release.
Photoreceptors
- Sensory neurons responsible for vision.
- Transduce electromagnetic energy (visible light) into changes in membrane potential, affecting neurotransmitter release.
- Lack action potentials.
- Opsins: Light-sensitive proteins in photoreceptor cells. They are metabotropic receptors, requiring a light-sensitive molecule to activate them.
- Retinal: Small molecule derived from vitamin A, attaches to opsin proteins, and absorbs electromagnetic energy of visible light. Retinal shape change initiates the activation cascade.
The Two Configurations of the Retinal Molecule
- Retinal's shape changes when it absorbs light, activating the opsin protein, which initiates intracellular signaling cascade and changing membrane potential.
Neural Transduction of Light
- Four types of photoreceptor cells contributing to vision:
- Red cone cells
- Green cone cells
- Blue cone cells
- Rod cells (contain rhodopsin)
- Each type is sensitive to different wavelengths of light (depending on retinal binding).
- Rod cells evolved later and are 100 times more sensitive to light than cone cells.
What the Eyes Detect
- Visible light: Electromagnetic energy with wavelengths between 380-760 nm.
- Detected by four kinds of photoreceptor cells (one rod cell, three cone cells).
Cone Photoreceptors: Trichromatic Coding
- Blue cones: Most sensitive to short wavelengths of light.
- Green cones: Most sensitive to medium wavelengths of light.
- Red cones: Most sensitive to long wavelengths of light.
- Color perception: A function of the relative activity levels across the three cone types.
Cone Photoreceptors: Trichromatic Coding (details)
- Cone cells are not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of light; green is typically perceived as brighter than red or blue when displayed at the same intensity.
- Color perception depends on the relative activation rates of the three cone cell types.
Trichromatic Coding
- Three types of light (red, green, and blue) contribute to all visible colors.
- Combining different intensities of these three basic colors can create any visible color.
- Close proximity of red and green lights can make them appear as yellow.
Additive vs. Subtractive Color
- Additive: Primary colors of light added together create new colors, with white being the combined result.
- Subtractive: Primary colors of paint absorb wavelengths while reflecting others, combining to produce different colors. Yellow, magenta, and cyan are the primary colors in paint.
Perceptual Dimensions of Color & Light
- Brightness: Intensity (amount) of light.
- Saturation: Purity (wavelength mixture) of light.
- Hue: Dominant wavelength or color of light.
- Saturation 0%: Grayscale (black & white).
- Saturation > 0%: Indicates light's dominant color.
Color Vision Deficiency
- Protanopia: Absence of red cone opsin, resulting in difficulty distinguishing colors in the green-yellow-red spectrum.
- Deuteranopia: Absence of green cone opsin, similar challenges to protanopia.
- Tritanopia: Absence of blue cone opsin; visual acuity often not affected.
Anatomy of the Eye
- Cornea: Outer front layer, focuses incoming light.
- Iris: Muscle that controls pupil size.
- Pupil: Opening in the iris, controls the amount of light entering the eye.
- Lens: Transparent structure that focuses light. Accomodation: Changing the shape of the lens to focus near or far objects.
- Conjunctiva: Membranes lining eyelids with part extending to eye surface
- Sclera: Opaque outer layer, no light passes through.
- Retina: Innermost lining of the eye. Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones).
- Fovea: Central region, highest visual acuity, mostly cone cells.
- Optic Disk: Where optic nerve exits and blood vessels enter/leave the eye. Contains a blind spot.
- Vitreous humor: Clear gel in large space behind lens
Movements of the Eye
- Eyes constantly move; rapid saccadic movements and slower pursuit movements.
- Extraocular muscles control eye movements; connected to the sclera.
Organization of the Retina
- Visual information relayed through layers of cells in retina (photoreceptors - bipolar cells - retinal ganglion cells) - light passes through each layer before reaching opsin in photoreceptors.
- Opsin proteins located in the back of the retina.
- Horizontal and amacrine cells help with interactions within each layer.
Retina Fovea vs. Periphery
- Fovea: High resolution, color vision, good for detailed tasks like reading. Contains similar number of photoreceptors and retinal ganglion cells; no compression.
- Periphery: High sensitivity to dim light, but lower visual acuity. Contains a large number of rod cells, allowing efficient detection of movement and general shapes in low-light. Massive compression of information due to the higher ratio of photoreceptors to ganglion cells.
Peripheral Vision
- Visual acuity and color distinction are poor in peripheral vision compared to fovea.
- Main function is to detect movement and general shapes.
Rod and Cone Photoreceptors
- Cones: Located in fovea, sensitive to high light levels, provide color vision and high acuity
- Rods: Located peripherally, sensitive to low light levels, provide monochrome vision and low acuity
Neurons in the Retina
- Photoreceptor cells contain opsin proteins.
- Bipolar cells transmit signals from photoreceptors to ganglion cells.
- Ganglion cells send information out of the eye via the optic nerve.
- Horizontal and amacrine cells connect neurons within each layer, promoting complex interactions.
Visual Information Pathways
- Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) send information to three main destinations:
- Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) in thalamus, processing information for conscious vision.
- Superior Colliculi (SC) in midbrain, involved in reflexive eye movements and orienting to stimuli.
- Hypothalamus, regulating circadian rhythms using light information.
Visual Cortex Wiring Diagram
- Visual cortex wiring is more complex than previously thought, involving bidirectional (bottom-up and top-down) pathways.
- Predictive coding theory explains how the visual cortex predicts future inputs based on prior experiences.
Blind Spot
- Location of the optic disk where the optic nerve exits the eye.
- No photoreceptors in the blind spot.
- Tested through tests that exploit our brains ability to fill gaps in our peripheral vision.
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
This quiz covers Lecture 9 of the Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience course, focusing on the first part of vision. Topics include the differences between sensation and perception, the role of sensory neurons, and the process of sensory transduction. Prepare to enhance your understanding of how the nervous system interprets sensory information.
