Introduction to Anthropology

Anthropology

• Holistic study of human cultural and biological variation
• Focuses on evolution and expressions of cultural and human biological variation
• Emphasizes the interaction between biological and cultural phenomena
• Culture is learned, symbolic, shared, all-encompassing, integrated, and adaptive

Subfields of Anthropology

• Cultural Anthropology: Studies human cultural behavior, including human cultural systems and variations in cultural expressions
• Linguistic Anthropology: Studies language as a human characteristic and how it relates to culture
• Biological (Physical) Anthropology: Studies humans as a biological species, including human genetics, evolution, fossil record, biology of living populations, and primatology
• Archaeology: Studies past human cultures through material remains, including human remains, plants, animals, tools, and ceramics
• Applied Anthropology: Applies anthropological theories and methods to real-world issues, such as genetic and biomedical research, public health, evolutionary medicine, medical anthropology, conservation of nonhuman primates, and museum/zoo work

Key Concepts

• Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures based on your own culture
• Cultural Relativism: Attempting to understand cultures without judging them based on your own culture
• Etic Perspective: Studying a society using concepts developed outside that culture (observer's perspective)
• Emic Perspective: Studying a society through the eyes of the people being studied
• Universal Human Rights: Beyond laws and customs of specific cultures; rights to speak freely, hold religious beliefs without persecution, and not be harmed
• Avoidance of Harm: Emphasized in universal human rights, it refers to actions that cause death, pain, disability, or loss of freedom
• Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Violence against women and children that involves partial or complete removal of external genitalia for non-medical reasons

Ethnographic Fieldwork

• Anthropologists participate in the culture they study to gather data
• Notes are important, but incomplete no matter how thorough
• Head Notes: Jot down important things missed during fieldwork

Language

• Systems of symbols with arbitrary meanings
• Enable communication about immediate and remote events
• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : Language and culture mutually influence each other; language shapes perception
• Semantics: Analyzes the meaning behind words and language
• Historical Linguistics: Study of language change over time; examines language as a source for cultural comparison
• Diachronic: "Through time" - studies historical linguistic change over time
• Synchronic: "With time" - studies language at a specific point in time

Key Terms in Linguistics

• Signifier: The word or symbol
• Signified: The concept or meaning of the word or symbol
• Indexical: When the signifier is caused by the signified (e.g., smoke as a signifier of fire)
• Iconic: When the signifier resembles the signified (e.g., a drawing of a tree)
• Symbols: Arbitrary signs that have no inherent connection to their meaning (e.g., the word "tree" itself)

Saussurian System of Linguistics

• Paradigmatic: Relationship between signs that could occupy the same slot or be substituted for each other (e.g., choosing one word over another)
• Syntagmatic: Relationship between signs that occur in sequence and influence each other (e.g., word order in a sentence)

Semiotics

• The study of signs and their interpretations
• Focuses on how signs acquire and convey meaning

Globalization

• Increasing interdependence of economies, cultures, and populations due to trade, technology, investment, migration, and information flow
• Not new, but now faster and more pervasive
• Can lead to rapid changes and increased urbanization
• Cultural Reproduction: Replication of cultural traits for survival

Modes of Production

• Ways of producing, reproducing, and sustaining bodies, communities, and culture

Authors and Anthropologists

• Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban: Specialized in Islamic law, anthropology, ethics, and human rights; explored cultural relativism and universal rights
• Richard Lee: Known for research on hunting and gathering societies, particularly the Ju/'hoansi-!Kung San
• Juliana Flinn: Studied Micronesia and cultural identity; highlighted challenges of ethnographic fieldwork and cultural sensitivities
• Michael Agar: Studied historical linguistics, particularly the work of Sir William Jones
• Deborah Tannen: Studied argument culture and communication styles; focus on "fighting for our lives" in debate
• Enid Schildkrout: Studied the use of body as visual art in Africa, particularly Ghana and Nigeria
• Ralph Linton: Early interest in archaeology; focused on the "One Hundred Percent American" concept
• Conrad Kottak: Studied the globalization of a Brazilian fishing community (Arembepe) over 45 years
• Billy Evans Horse: Examined tribal sovereignty and the impact of globalization on Kiowa culture
• Edward Sapir: Linguistic anthropologist who emphasized the relationship between personality and culture, and the symbolic nature of culture
• Benjamin Whorf: Notable linguistic anthropologist known for his theory of linguistic relativity, which states that language influences thought
• Ferdinand de Saussure: Swiss linguist who developed a radical approach to the study of language, emphasizing the arbitrary nature of the sign.

Important Places

• Kalahari Desert: Home to the Ju/'hoansi-!Kung San people studied by Richard Lee
• Micronesia: Island group in the Pacific Ocean where Juliana Flinn conducted research
• Arembepe, Brazil: Brazilian fishing community studied by Conrad Kottak over 45 years

Key Points to Ponder

• Why Anthropology? To define what it means to be human, to understand the range of human beliefs and behavior, and to identify commonalities ("human universals")
• Limits of Cultural Relativism: While cultural relativism encourages understanding, it has its limitations, especially in cases of violence and oppression. Moral judgments can be assessed from a social scientific perspective.
• Qualities of Great Notes: Anthropologists strive for quality, detailed, accurate, complete, and helpful notes that can be used for analysis
• Lee and the !Kung: The !Kung's behavior towards Lee stemmed from various factors, including distrust of outsiders, cultural norms, resource competition, and potential miscommunication
• Flinn's Dilemma: A comment made by Flinn about "honesty" offended her friend/informant in Micronesia because it was culturally inappropriate, highlighting the importance of sensitivity in fieldwork