Introduction to Abnormal Psychology

Introduction to Abnormal Psychology

• Abnormal psychology seeks to understand the nature, causes, and treatment of mental disorders
• Mental health is a relevant topic often portrayed in media and present in communities
• Clinicians and researchers require specific skills to address mental disorders using scientific approaches
• Psychologists utilize research to comprehend disorders and improve treatment methods
• Research advancements lead to better understanding and more effective treatments for mental disorders

Defining Abnormality

• A universally accepted definition of abnormality remains elusive
• No single behavior sufficiently defines it
• Difficulties across multiple life areas increase the likelihood of a mental disorder

Indicators of Abnormality

• Subjective distress refers to psychological pain or suffering, and is neither sufficient nor necessary on its own to define abnormality
• Maladaptiveness describes behavior that interferes with well-being and the ability to function effectively
• Statistical deviancy indicates statistically rare behavior, but relies on value judgments
• Violation of the standards of society involves a failure to adhere to social and moral norms
• Social discomfort arises when an individual's behavior creates unease in others
• Irrationality and unpredictability are characterized by erratic or incomprehensible behavior
• Dangerousness relates to the risk posed to oneself or others, though is not always indicative of mental illness
• Decisions about abnormal behavior are always based on the values and expectations of society

DSM-5 Definition of Mental Disorder

• The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) serves as the standard for defining mental disorders in the U.S.
• The DSM-5 includes 541 diagnostic categories
• Revisions to the DSM are important for incorporating new scientific developments
• DSM-5 defines a mental disorder as a syndrome involving clinically significant disturbances in behavior, emotion regulation, or cognitive functioning, reflecting biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunctions.
• Mental disorders typically cause distress or disability in social, occupational, or other key areas.
• DSM-5 excludes predictable responses to stressors and conflicts with society when defining mental disorders
• Any definition of abnormality involves some degree of arbitrariness
• ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases) represents another diagnostic system used outside the U.S.

Classification and Diagnosis: Advantages

• Classification systems provide a nomenclature (naming system) for a common language
• Classification structures information and organizes diagnoses
• Classification facilitates research, promotes understanding of causes, and improves treatment approaches
• Classification defines the scope of problems addressed by mental health professionals
• Classification influences insurance reimbursement for psychological difficulties

Classification and Diagnosis: Disadvantages

• A classification system can lead to the loss of individual information
• Classification may cause stigma associated with psychiatric diagnoses
• Classification can result in stereotyping, which involves automatic beliefs about people in a particular culture
• Classification can lead to labeling, where a person's self-concept is affected by receiving a diagnosis
• Stigma deters individuals from seeking treatment

Impact of Culture on Abnormality

• Culture influences how abnormality is defined and presented
• Beliefs and behaviors within a culture are accepted practices
• Variations exist in how different cultures describe psychological distress
• Most psychiatric literature comes from Euro-American countries

Culture-Specific Disorders

• Taijin kyofusho is an anxiety disorder found in Japan involving fear of offending others
• Ataque de nervios is an expression of distress in Latino cultures, involving crying and trembling
• Certain behaviors, like hearing voices or defecating in public, are almost universally considered abnormal

Epidemiology and Its Importance

• Epidemiology is the study of the distribution of diseases, disorders, and health-related behaviors in a population
• Epidemiological info is essential for planning mental health services
• The frequency of mental disorders offers insights into the possible causes

Prevalence and Incidence

• Prevalence indicates the number of active cases in a population during a specific period
  • Point prevalence captures the proportion of active cases at a specific point in time
  • 1-year prevalence includes anyone experiencing depression at any point during the year
  • Lifetime prevalence counts the number of people who have had a disorder at any point in their lives
• Incidence refers to the number of new cases that occur over a set period

Prevalence Estimates for Mental Disorders

• The National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) provides prevalence estimates for mental disorders in the US
• About half of American adults have experienced mental illness at some point in their lives
• Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent category of mental disorders
• Major depressive disorder, alcohol abuse, and specific phobias are the most common individual disorders
• Serious mental illness affects about 4.1% of adults
• Comorbidity is the concurrent presence of two or more disorders in the same individual

Treatment Considerations

• Treatments like medication and psychotherapy are available for mental disorders
• Not everyone with a psychological disorder receives treatment
• Stigma can deter people from seeking help
• Individuals often consult their family physician instead of a mental health specialist

Global Burden of Disease and Mental Health

• Mental and substance use disorders account for over 7% of the global burden of disease
• Depression represents the largest single contributor to the global burden of disease
• Mental disorders cause significant economic losses because of decreased productivity

Deinstitutionalization Impact

• Deinstitutionalization represents a trend away from traditional hospitalization
• There are decreases in inpatient beds for mental health treatment
• There is an increase in prison inmates being treated for severe mental illness
• Movement away from long-stay inpatient hospitalization has had many unintended consequences for disadvantaged people

Mental Health Professionals Roles

• Psychiatrists prescribe medication
• Clinical psychologists provide individual therapy
• Clinical social workers help with family problems
• Psychiatric nurses provide support

Reasons for Abnormal Psychology Research

• To understand the specific characteristics of disorders
• To learn about the etiology, or causes, of mental disorders
• To provide patients with the best care possible
• To avoid biases in perception and inference
• Research can be conducted in clinics, hospitals, schools, and prisons
• Research methodology is constantly evolving

Sources of Information

• Psychological knowledge comes from observation

Case Studies

• Detailed accounts of individual patients
• Can illustrate clinical material
• Have low generalizability, meaning they cannot be used to draw conclusions about other cases
• May be biased

Self-Report Data

• Questionnaires and interviews
• People may not accurately report their own subjective states
• Data can be misleading due to factors such as lying or misinterpretation

Observational Approaches

• Collection of data without direct questioning
• Direct observation of behavior
• Collection of biological data, such as heart rate and stress hormones
• Utilization of brain-imaging techniques like fMRI to study brain function
• Clinical research comprises a combination of self-report and observational methods

The Role of Hypotheses

• A hypothesis is an attempt to explain, predict, or explore a phenomenon
• Scientists test their hypotheses through research studies
• Sources of hypotheses may include anecdotal accounts and unexpected research findings
• Hypotheses influence therapeutic approaches for clinical problems

Sampling and Generalization Considerations

• Study groups with similar abnormalities of behavior
• Sampling involves selecting people who are representative of a larger group
• In random sampling, every person has an equal chance of being included
• Researchers sometimes use "samples of convenience"

Internal and External Validity

• External validity refers to the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the study itself
• Internal validity refers to how confident we are in the results of a study

Criterion and Comparison Groups

• The comparison group, also known as the control group, consists of people who do not exhibit the disorder being studied
• The criterion group consists of people with the disorder being studied
• Researchers compare the criterion and comparison groups on variables of interest

Correlational Research Designs: Associations

• Examines the world as it is without manipulating variables
• Capitalizes on natural groupings of people
• Useful for identifying factors associated with disorders

Measuring Correlation

• Determines associations among phenomena
  • Positive correlation occurs when measures vary together in a direct manner
  • Negative correlation indicates an inverse relationship between the variables of interest
• The strength of correlation is measured by the correlation coefficient (r)
  • Ranges from 0 to 1
  • Positive or negative sign indicates the direction of association