Intro to Sociology: Key Concepts

General Terms and Vocabulary

• Understanding and defining sociological terms such as power, social structure, and deviance is crucial
• Knowing theorists' names (e.g., Goffman, Durkheim, Malthus) and their contributions are important.

Social Structure

• It is the organized pattern of social relationships and institutions that constitute society
• It guides behavior and fosters stability within society.

Status and Roles

• Status refers to a position in society, such as a student, parent, or teacher
• Ascribed status is assigned at birth, like race or gender
• Achieved status is earned through effort, such as becoming a college graduate
• Roles are the behaviors, obligations, and privileges associated with a status
• Role conflict occurs when two or more roles clash
• Role strain is the tension within a single role.

Social Construction of Reality and Thomas Theorem

• Social construction of reality involves individuals shaping reality through social interaction
• Thomas Theorem states that if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences, meaning perception shapes behavior.

Ethnomethodology

• Ethnomethodology studies how people make sense of their everyday surroundings
• Researchers break social norms to study reactions and how social order is maintained.

Goffman’s Dramaturgical Theory

• Dramaturgical theory views social interaction as a theatrical performance
• The front stage is where people perform roles in public
• The back stage is where people prepare and relax
• Impression management involves efforts to control how others perceive individuals.

Social Exchange Theory

• Social exchange theory views social interactions as transactions aimed at maximizing rewards and minimizing costs
• Relationships are based on mutual benefits.

Non-Verbal Communication and Personal Space

• Non-verbal communication includes body language, facial expressions, gestures, and eye contact
• Personal space is the physical distance individuals maintain between themselves and others, varying by culture.

Interaction in Online Environments

• Individuals adapt communication styles through emojis and tone in text
• Anonymity affects behavior
• Online communities and social networks form.

Social Groups

• A social group consists of two or more people who interact and share a sense of unity
• Primary groups are small, intimate, and long-lasting, like family
• Secondary groups are larger, impersonal, and goal-oriented, such as coworkers.

Formal Organizations

• These are large, structured groups designed to achieve specific goals
• They have characteristics of clear hierarchy, division of labor, and written rules
• Types of formal organizations include utilitarian (businesses), normative (charities), and coercive (prisons).

Bureaucracies

• A bureaucracy is a formal organization with a hierarchy, rules, and impersonal relationships
• Ideal characteristics include efficiency, specialization, and clear rules
• Dysfunctions include red tape, alienation, and inefficiency.

McDonaldization

• George Ritzer defined it
• The process by which principles of fast-food restaurants dominate society
• Composed of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control through technology.

Social Institutions

• Established systems like family, education, and religion fulfill societal needs
• Common institutions include family, education, religion, economy, and government.

Demography

• Demography is the study of human populations
• Key terms include population, migration, and fertility
• Demographic trends include aging populations, urbanization, and migration patterns.

Malthusian Theory and Demographic Transition Theory

• Malthusian theory posits that population grows faster than the food supply, leading to famine and conflict
• Demographic transition theory suggests population changes as societies industrialize, moving from high to low birth and death rates.

Urbanization

• Urbanization is the growth of cities and migration to urban areas
• Consequences include overcrowding, pollution, inequality, and cultural diversity.

Deviance

• Deviance is behavior that violates social norms
• It is context-dependent, culturally relative, and subject to social control.

Types of Crimes and Measuring Crime

• Types include street crimes, hate crimes, white-collar crimes, cybercrimes, organized crimes, and victimless crimes
• Crime is measured through UCR (Uniform Crime Reports), which provides official police statistics, and NCVS (National Crime Victimization Survey), which gather self-reported victimization data.

Crime Rates, Offenders, and Victims

• Crime rates show trends and factors influencing crime
• Characteristics of offenders and victims include age, gender, and socioeconomic status
• Reasons for crime include social inequality, lack of opportunity, and cultural factors.

Theories of Deviance

• Functionalist perspective views deviance as functional or dysfunctional
• Durkheim’s anomie refers to normlessness due to rapid social change
• Lemert’s primary deviance is the initial deviant act
• Secondary deviance results from societal reaction
• Social control theory states deviance occurs when social bonds are weak.

Controlling Crime

• Social controls are formal (laws, police) and informal (norms, family)
• Control theory suggests people conform due to strong social bonds
• Punishment and incarceration involve issues such as high imprisonment rates, racial disparities, and rehabilitation.