Intro to Science: Principles and Methods

• Science represents a systematic and organized method for deciphering the natural world and its phenomena.
• Observation, experimentation, and theoretical explanation are integral components.
• A primary objective is acquiring dependable knowledge about the universe and its operational principles.

Core Principles of Science

• Empiricism is the belief that observation and experimentation are routes to accurate knowledge.
• Rationalism highlights logical reasoning and deduction when interpreting the world.
• Skepticism is the practice of questioning claims and theories, especially accepted ones, while seeking empirical support.
• Objectivity is minimizing personal biases, plus subjective interpretations when pursuing knowledge.
• Parsimony is choosing the simplest sufficient explanation for observed phenomena (Occam's Razor).

The Scientific Method

• The scientific method consists of a systematic approach for conducting scientific investigations.
• Observation involves identifying a phenomenon or problem for study.
• Hypothesis includes formulating a testable explanation or prediction.
• Experimentation means designing and conducting controlled tests to gather data.
• Analysis involves interpreting the data to see if it confirms or denies the hypothesis.
• Conclusion involves drawing conclusions based on analysis and communicating the findings.
• Iteration requires refining the hypothesis and rerunning the process based on the results.

Branches of Science

• Natural Sciences investigate the physical world alongside its phenomena.
• Physics focuses on the universe's fundamental laws, including matter, energy, motion, and forces.
• Chemistry studies the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
• Biology studies living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, and interactions.
• Earth Science explores the Earth's structure, composition, processes, and history, incorporating geology, meteorology, and oceanography.
• Social Sciences study human society and social behavior.
• Psychology explores the human mind, behavior, and mental processes.
• Sociology studies social structures, institutions, and group dynamics.
• Economics analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
• Political Science studies the theory and practice of politics, including government.
• Anthropology studies human culture, society, and evolution.
• Formal Sciences use formal systems to generate knowledge.
• Mathematics focuses on abstract structures, relationships, and patterns.
• Logic studies the principles of valid reasoning and argumentation.
• Computer Science focuses on the theory, design, and application of computers including computational systems.
• Applied Sciences apply scientific knowledge to tackle practical problems, plus technological development.
• Engineering uses scientific principles to design and construct various structures, machines, and systems.
• Medicine applies scientific knowledge to treat, prevent, and diagnose disease.
• Agriculture applies scientific knowledge to refine both crop production, and animal husbandry.
• Interdisciplinary Sciences combine multiple fields of scientific study.
• Biochemistry integrates biology and chemistry, to study chemical life processes.
• Geophysics combines physics and geology to study the Earth's physical phenomenon.
• Environmental Science explores interactions between living organisms and their environment, integrating biology, chemistry, and Earth science.

Scientific Theories and Laws

• Scientific Theory involves a well-substantiated explanation of the natural world, based on repeatedly confirmed facts gathered through observation, and experiment.
• Theories constitute robust explanations used to guide research and make predictions.
• Examples of scientific theories include evolution, relativity, and plate tectonics.
• Scientific Law involves a descriptive statement or mathematical equation used to reliably predict events under specific conditions.
• Laws originate through observations and experimentation, often expressed as mathematical relationships.
• Laws describe outcomes, not explanations.
• Examples of scientific laws include gravity (Newton's law of universal gravitation), thermodynamics, and conservation of energy.

Measurement and Units

• Standardized units are used to quantify physical quantities and maintain consistency in scientific measurements.
• The International System of Units (SI) constitutes the standard system of units within science.
• Base Units include fundamental units of measurement.
• Meter (m) measures length.
• Kilogram (kg) measures mass.
• Second (s) measures time.
• Ampere (A) measures electric current.
• Kelvin (K) measures temperature.
• Mole (mol) measures the amount of a substance.
• Candela (cd) measures luminous intensity.
• Derived Units combine base units.
• Newton (N) measures force.
• Joule (J) measures energy.
• Watt (W) measures power.
• Pascal (Pa) measures pressure.
• Hertz (Hz) measures frequency.

Scientific Instruments and Tools

• Scientific instruments and tools are used to make observations, collect data, and conduct experiments.
• Microscopes view small objects too diminutive to see with the unaided human eye.
• Telescopes observes distant objects in space, like stars, planets, and galaxies.
• Spectrometers analyze light properties, plus electromagnetic radiation.
• Scales and Balances measure mass and weight.
• Thermometers gauage temperature.
• Multimeters measure voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits.
• Chromatography separates, plus analyzes chemical mixtures.
• Particle Accelerators accelerate charged particles at high speeds, for scientific research.

Data Analysis and Statistics

• Statistical methods are used to analyze data, spot patterns, and draw inferences.
• Descriptive Statistics summarize, plus describe a dataset's features.
• Mean is the average value.
• Median is the middle value.
• Mode is the most frequent value.
• Standard Deviation gauges how data spreads around the mean.
• Inferential Statistics make inferences and draw conclusions about a population based on a sample of data.
• Hypothesis Testing determines if evidence is sufficient to reject a null hypothesis.
• Confidence Intervals provide a range of likely values for the parameter of the population.
• Regression Analysis models relationships between variables, and makes predictions.

Ethics in Science

• Ethical principles govern scientific research and ensure scientific integrity.
• Honesty dictates that scientists report findings honestly, avoiding plagiarism or data fabrication.
• Objectivity requires scientists minimize bias, plus conflicts of interest.
• Openness means scientists share data, methods, and results transparently.
• Credit necessitates scientists give proper credit to others' contributions.
• Responsibility entails scientists remain accountable for their research, also minimizing any harm.
• Respect dictates scientists treat colleagues, research subjects, plus the public with respect, and dignity.

Science and Society

• Science plays a vital role addressing social issues and advancing human progress.
• Scientific research in medicine has developed vaccines, antibiotics, and various other treatments.
• Scientific discoveries in technology have driven innovations within communication, transportation, and energy.
• Scientific understanding of the environment is essential for addressing climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss.
• Scientific evidence guides public policy decisions related to health, education, and also the environment.