Intro to Research: Variables and Methodology

• Research is defined as a systematic investigation into a topic to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
• The purpose of research is to expand knowledge, test theories, and inform practices.

Traits of Good Research

• Empirical: Based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than theory or belief.
• Systematic: Follows a structured, step-by-step process to ensure accuracy and consistency.
• Valid: Accurately measures what it intends to measure.
• Reliable: Produces consistent results when repeated under the same conditions.

Independent Variables

• Independent variables are the factors that are manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe their effect on another variable.
• They are the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Dependent Variables

• Dependent variables are the factors that are measured or observed in a study and are expected to change in response to the independent variable.
• They are the presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Scientific Method

• The Scientific Method is a systematic approach to conducting research, involving:
  • Observation: Identifying a problem or phenomenon to be studied.
  • Hypothesis: Formulating a testable prediction or explanation.
  • Prediction: Deducing consequences that must follow if hypothesis is supported
  • Experimentation: Designing and conducting a study to test the hypothesis.
  • Analysis: Analyzing the data collected during the experiment.
  • Conclusion: Interpreting the results and drawing conclusions about the hypothesis.

Considerations When Using Participants

• Coercion: Participants should not be forced or pressured to participate.
• Capacity: Participants must have the cognitive ability to understand the research and make informed decisions.
• Consent: Participants must give their informed consent to participate in the research.
• Ethics-related issues: Research must adhere to ethical guidelines to protect participants' rights and well-being.

Ethical Concerns

• Researchers have a duty to protect participants from harm and maintain their well-being throughout the study.
• Researchers are obligated to conduct research in a professional and ethical manner, adhering to established guidelines and principles.

Informed Consent and Debriefing

• Informed consent involves providing participants with complete information about the research, including its purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits, before they agree to participate.
• Debriefing involves informing participants about the true nature and purpose of the research after their participation, addressing any misconceptions or concerns they may have.

Participants’ Rights

• Privacy: Participants have the right to control the collection, storage, and use of their personal information.
• Confidentiality: Researchers must protect the privacy of participants' data and ensure that it is not disclosed to unauthorized individuals.
• Anonymity: Participants' identities should not be linked to their data in any way.

Descriptive Research

• Descriptive research aims to describe the characteristics of a population or phenomenon without manipulating variables.

Survey Research

• Survey research involves collecting data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews.

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Surveys

• Cross-sectional surveys collect data at a single point in time, while longitudinal surveys collect data from the same participants over an extended period to examine changes over time.

Correlational Research

• Examines the relationship between variables without manipulating them.
• Pros: Can identify associations between variables and generate hypotheses for future research.
• Cons: Cannot establish causality due to the possibility of other influencing variables.
• Limitations: Correlation does not equal causation.

True Experimental Designs

• Involve the manipulation of one or more independent variables and the random assignment of participants to different treatment conditions.
• Features: Manipulation of variables, random assignment, and control groups to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Quasi-Experimental Designs

• Similar to experimental designs but lack random assignment to treatment conditions.
• Features: Manipulation of variables but use of intact groups or non-random assignment.

Random Assignment vs. Intact Groups

• Random assignment involves assigning participants to treatment conditions randomly to ensure that groups are equivalent at the start of the study.
• Intact groups are pre-existing groups (e.g., classrooms) that are not randomly assigned.

Differences Between Research Types

• Experimental: Manipulates variables and uses random assignment to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Quasi-experimental: Manipulates variables but lacks random assignment.
• Non-experimental: Observes and describes variables without manipulation.

Group Comparison Studies

• Involve comparing two or more groups of participants on a particular outcome variable.

Relationship Between Study Type and Method of Forming Groups

• Experimental: Groups are randomly selected and allocated.
• Quasi-experimental: Intact groups are used, but participants may be randomly allocated to treatment conditions within those groups.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

• Quantitative research collects numerical data and uses statistical analysis to test hypotheses and make inferences.
• Qualitative research collects non-numerical data (e.g., interviews, observations) to explore and understand complex phenomena.

Action Research

• Action research is a problem-solving approach used by practitioners to improve practices within their own settings.

Role and Reason for Literature Reviews

• The literature review summarizes and synthesizes existing research on a topic to provide context, identify gaps in knowledge, and justify the need for further research.

Databases for Literature Sources

• Academic databases such as PsycINFO, ERIC, PubMed, and Web of Science are commonly used to find literature sources.

Chapter Explanations

• Chapter 1 (Introduction): Provides the rationale and justification for the study, including the research problem, purpose, and significance.
• Chapter 2 (Literature Review): Reviews and synthesizes existing research on the topic.
• Chapter 3 (Methodology): Describes the methods used to conduct the study, including the participants, procedures, measures, and data analysis techniques.

Research Problem, Question, & Hypothesis

• The research problem identifies a gap or issue in the existing knowledge base.
• The research question formulates the problem into a specific question that the study aims to answer.
• The research hypothesis is a testable statement about the expected relationship between variables.

Types of Research Questions

• Descriptive: Describe characteristics of one group (e.g., How many students are in special education?)
• Difference: Compare two or more groups (e.g., are public school kids different than private school?)
• Relationship: Look at the relationship between two or more variables

Paul's Famous Question

• "What treatment, by whom, is most effective for this individual with that specific problem, and under which set of circumstances?" emphasizes the importance of individualized treatment approaches and considering the specific context in which treatment is delivered.

Experiment Design Example

• Subjects: Recruit participants diagnosed with depression through advertisements and referrals.
• Obtaining Subjects: Screen potential participants using standardized diagnostic interviews.
• Treatment Conditions: Randomly assign participants to either the drug treatment group or a placebo control group (+ maybe a treatment as usual group).
• IV: The drug (experimental group) versus placebo (control group).
• DVs: Measures of depression symptoms (e.g., Beck Depression Inventory), mood ratings, and daily functioning.

Considerations When Choosing a Research Problem

• Theoretical: The problem should be grounded in theory and contribute to the existing body of knowledge.
• Practical: The problem should have practical significance and address real-world issues.
• Workability: The problem should be feasible to investigate given available resources and constraints.
• Personal Interest: The researcher should be genuinely interested in the problem to maintain motivation and commitment.

Characteristics of a Good Research Question

• Probes relationship between two or more variables.
• Clear and understandable.
• Posed in question format.
• Explicit and specific.
• Testable through empirical investigation.
• Avoids moral or ethical judgments.

Research Hypotheses

• A research hypothesis is a testable statement about the expected relationship between variables.

Characteristics of Usable Research Hypotheses

• Clear and concise.
• Testable through empirical investigation.
• States the expected relationship between variables.

Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypotheses

• Directional hypotheses specify the direction of the relationship between variables (e.g., increase, decrease).
• Non-directional hypotheses state that a relationship exists but do not specify the direction.

Operational Definitions

• Operational definitions define variables in terms of the specific procedures or measures used to assess them.
• Significance: Ensure clarity and consistency in research by specifying how variables will be measured or manipulated.

Research vs. Null Hypotheses

• Research hypotheses state the expected relationship between variables.
• Null hypotheses state that there is no relationship between variables.

Control Variables

• Control variables are factors that are kept constant or controlled to prevent them from influencing the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Moderator Variables

• Moderator variables are the variables that influence the strength or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Intervening Variables

• Intervening variables are the variables that explain the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Reliability

• Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurement.
• Significance: Ensures that the results of a study are dependable and replicable.

Validity

• Validity refers to the accuracy of measurement, ensuring that it measures what it intends to measure.
• Significance: Ensures that the conclusions drawn from a study are accurate and meaningful.

Internal Validity

• Internal validity refers to the extent to which a study establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
• Threats include selection bias, history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, mortality, and diffusion of treatment

External Validity

• External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times. Includes population validity and ecological validity

Internal and External Validity

• Internal and external validity are often inversely related; increasing one may decrease the other.

Qualitative Research (QLT)

• Types: Ethnography, phenomenology, case study, grounded theory.
• Methods: Interviews, observations, focus groups, document analysis.
• Rationale/Lens: Seeks to understand the meaning and interpretation of human experiences and phenomena.
• Pros: Provides rich, in-depth insights and captures complexity.
• Cons: Can be subjective, time-consuming, and difficult to generalize.

Explore research methodologies, focusing on the traits of good research, including empirical, systematic, valid, and reliable approaches. Understand independent variables which are manipulated by the researcher and dependent variables which are measured for change.