International Relations Overview

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is GDP a measure of?

The total population of a country

The total energy output of a nation

The total of goods and services produced by a nation in one year (correct)

The total military spending of a nation

Which countries historically held the title of superpowers during the Cold War?

Germany and Japan

United Kingdom and France

China and India

The United States and the Soviet Union (correct)

How many countries have populations over 80 million and what proportion do they account for of the world’s population?

10 countries, accounting for one-fourth of the population

16 countries, accounting for about two-thirds of the population (correct)

5 countries, accounting for three-fourths of the population

20 countries, accounting for half of the population

Which of the following entities functions independently but is not formally recognized as a state?

Taiwan Signup and view all the answers

How does reciprocity contribute to international relations?

It fosters cooperation through mutual exchanges. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential negative outcome of reciprocity in international relations?

Arms races driven by mutual responses. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the identity principle from other principles in international relations?

It motivates members to sacrifice their own interests for others. Signup and view all the answers

How do shared identities impact foreign aid and peacekeeping efforts?

They enhance cooperation based on common values and goals. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the U.S.-British alliance, what plays a significant role alongside strategic interests?

Shared national identity. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a head of government from a head of state?

The head of government is responsible for running the government. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant challenge to the current state-based system presented in the content?

the impact of economic globalization Signup and view all the answers

How has the concept of nation-states evolved in the last 200 years?

It emerged alongside the idea that groups with a national identity should govern themselves. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of the modern international system?

Relationships between states governed by explicit and implicit rules. Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of the post-World War II decolonization?

It led to many new states that often do not align with national identities. Signup and view all the answers

What region is identified as the origins of European civilization?

The eastern Mediterranean Signup and view all the answers

Which period is associated with the growth of power politics in China according to the content?

The Warring States period Signup and view all the answers

What role did Alexander the Great play in international relations?

His conquests contributed to the expansion of Greek influence. Signup and view all the answers

What impact did European settlers have on North America's indigenous cultures?

They largely displaced or exterminated indigenous cultures. Signup and view all the answers

During which historical period was China highly advanced and independent of Western influence?

The Tang dynasty Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant outcome of the Korean War for U.S.-Chinese relations?

It hardened U.S. attitudes toward communism. Signup and view all the answers

What role did China play during the Cold War in relation to superpowers?

China played a balancing role, aligning with whichever superpower seemed most threatening. Signup and view all the answers

Which event marked the initial thaw during the Cold War after Stalin's death?

The Geneva Summit in 1955. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason for the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s?

China's opposition to Soviet moves toward peaceful coexistence with the U.S. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the nature of summit meetings during the Cold War?

They involved heads of state discussing matters of significant international importance. Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary difficulty in defining power as influence?

It leads to circular logic regarding a second actor's actions. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is considered a best single indicator of a state's power?

Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Signup and view all the answers

What concept emphasizes the role of nonmaterial elements in power?

Soft power. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect do realists particularly focus on regarding power in international relations?

Relative power between states. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant limitation of using GDP as a measure of power?

It lacks precision, especially between wealthy and developing countries. Signup and view all the answers

What was one major consequence of the U.S. adopting unilateralism during the Iraq War?

It signified a clear departure from traditional multilateral challenges. Signup and view all the answers

Which U.S. president emphasized multilateral approaches to international conflicts in the late 2000s?

Barack Obama Signup and view all the answers

What major factor influenced U.S. internationalism after the Cold War?

Rising economic challenges and new isolationism Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant action taken by the Trump administration regarding international organizations?

Withdraw from the Paris Climate Accord Signup and view all the answers

What was a key characteristic of the early Westphalian system?

The concept of sovereignty and powerful states. Signup and view all the answers

What does hegemony allow a state to do in the international system?

Control the rules and arrangements of political and economic relations Signup and view all the answers

Which historical period is associated with Britain's dominance in international trade?

The Pax Britannica Signup and view all the answers

According to hegemonic stability theory, what impact does hegemony have on the international system?

Provides order similar to a central government Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of hegemonic decline?

International instability and conflict Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributed to the U.S. becoming a hegemon after World War II?

Possessing a majority share of global GDP Signup and view all the answers

What is a central principle of Liberal Institutionalism in promoting peace among states?

Mutually advantageous rules and regulations Signup and view all the answers

What key aspect do neoliberals argue about state behavior in international relations?

States can achieve cooperation through institutions. Signup and view all the answers

Which approach views war as irrational and harmful to the collective interests of states?

Liberal theories Signup and view all the answers

Kant believed that autonomous states could join which type of organization to foster adherence to principles overriding individual interests?

Global federations, such as the UN Signup and view all the answers

What foundational belief about states is acknowledged by the neoliberal approach?

States are unitary actors in pursuit of self-interest. Signup and view all the answers

How does reciprocity influence compliance with international trade norms?

By allowing collective retaliation against unfair trade practices Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Prisoner's Dilemma (PD) game play in the understanding of cooperation through reciprocity?

It demonstrates that repeated interactions can encourage cooperative behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential risk associated with strict reciprocity in international relations?

It may escalate hostility through tit-for-tat responses. Signup and view all the answers

What was a pivotal outcome of the reciprocal actions between the U.S. and China during their initial interactions?

U.S. citizens being released in response to trade concession. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the operation principle of the World Trade Organization (WTO)?

It operates on the principle of punishing states that engage in unfair trade practices. Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains the change in societal views towards piracy over time?

Normative shift Signup and view all the answers

What type of power does Switzerland leverage through its status as a neutral state?

Normative power Signup and view all the answers

How have perceptions of pirates changed in contemporary society?

They are celebrated in popular culture. Signup and view all the answers

Which country emphasizes its identity-related imperatives in its foreign policy through peacekeeping efforts?

Canada Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant impact of the evolution of social norms on foreign policy?

It can alter perceptions of perceived threats dramatically. Signup and view all the answers

How do constructivists differ from realists concerning state interests?

State interests are shaped by social interactions. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is central to constructivism in international relations?

The importance of international norms and identities. Signup and view all the answers

What does constructivism suggest about the identity of a potential adversary?

It is crucial in defining perceived threats. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of state interactions, what do constructivists emphasize about decision-making?

Decisions are influenced by social perceptions and norms. Signup and view all the answers

What do constructivists believe about the evolution of state identities?

They evolve through interactions and socialization. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus at the individual level of analysis in international relations?

Actions and leadership of political leaders Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that leaders with unpredictable behaviors may achieve better outcomes in negotiations?

Madman theory Signup and view all the answers

How has early realism contributed to understanding wars and peace at the individual level?

By highlighting human nature as selfish and lacking morals Signup and view all the answers

What does the domestic level of analysis examine in international relations?

Characteristics of states or societies Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is identified as contributing to the variations in a leader's propensity for peace or conflict?

Worldviews and psychological processes Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of civil wars?

They involve factions within a state aiming to change governmental structure. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes limited war?

It aims at specific military objectives without full occupation. Signup and view all the answers

How do raids differ from other forms of warfare?

Raids consist of single, quick military actions with limited destruction. Signup and view all the answers

What historical conflict serves as an example of a secessionist civil war?

The U.S. Civil War. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the balance of power in the international system?

It prevents one state from dominating an entire region by using the power of other states to maintain stability. Signup and view all the answers

How do alliances contribute to maintaining the balance of power?

Alliances allow states to quickly and effectively combine their power against a threatening state. Signup and view all the answers

What historical example illustrates the role of alliances in balancing power during the Cold War?

The United States formed military and political alliances to encircle the Soviet Union and limit its territorial expansion. Signup and view all the answers

In what scenarios might smaller states choose to 'bandwagon' instead of balancing against a stronger state?

Smaller states may 'bandwagon' with the most powerful state due to perceived threats or domestic considerations. Signup and view all the answers

What does the theory of balance of power suggest about the stability of the international system?

It suggests that regular counterbalancing maintains stability, but this stability does not guarantee peace. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary factor that has historically shaped identity-based conflicts?

Nationalism is the primary factor that has historically shaped identity-based conflicts. Signup and view all the answers

How did the perceptions of nationalism influence the creation of nation-states in Europe around A.D. 1500?

Nationalism led to the unification of large territories into powerful nation-states, incorporating smaller neighbors and territories. Signup and view all the answers

What were the complex factors contributing to the conflict between Russia and Ukraine following the Soviet breakup?

The conflict involved ethnic, religious, territorial, and economic disputes. Signup and view all the answers

What significant event in 2014 marked a change in the conflict between Russia and Ukraine?

Russia annexed Crimea and supported a rebellion in eastern Ukraine. Signup and view all the answers

Why is the definition of 'nation' considered difficult to precisely define?

A nation involves shared identity attributes like language and culture, which can vary widely among groups. Signup and view all the answers

What is the core problem in international relations regarding collective goods?

The core problem is how countries can pursue shared interests while forgoing individual interests, leading to potential conflict over short-term gains. Signup and view all the answers

How do small groups facilitate the provision of collective goods more effectively than larger groups?

Small groups allow for easier detection of cheating or free riding, which makes it simpler to enforce compliance and coordinate actions. Signup and view all the answers

What is referred to as the 'collective goods problem' in the context of international relations?

The collective goods problem refers to the difficulty of ensuring cooperation among nations when they prioritize individual interests over shared benefits. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it significant that no international body holds a monopoly on the use of force globally?

Without a global authority to enforce order, states must address collective goods problems on their own, risking conflict and instability. Signup and view all the answers

In what ways can individual citizen actions influence international relations?

Citizens impact international relations through voting, buying globally traded products, and staying informed, shaping national policy and global governance. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does constructivism in International Relations differ from realism regarding state interests?

Constructivism posits that state interests are shaped by social interactions, while realism assumes that these interests are fixed and primarily centered around power. Signup and view all the answers

How do shared histories and norms contribute to the perception of threats between states according to constructivists?

Constructivists argue that shared histories and norms can alleviate perceived threats, as seen in the U.S.-British relations, where cooperation mitigates concerns despite military differences. Signup and view all the answers

What role do identities play in shaping a state's national interests, according to constructivist theory?

Identities influence how states define their national interests and prioritize threats, shaping their interactions based on social perceptions and relationships. Signup and view all the answers

How does constructivism account for the complexities of state identities over time?

Constructivism acknowledges that state identities are complex and evolve through ongoing interactions and socialization with other states, impacting their foreign policies. Signup and view all the answers

What are some implications of constructivism for understanding international relationships in Europe post-World War II?

Constructivism implies that evolving identities and norms in Europe have helped prevent conflicts and foster cooperation, despite a history of warfare. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Cooperation in International Relations

Reciprocity can foster cooperation, but can also lead to negative outcomes like arms races.
Identity principle relies on members' willingness to sacrifice their interests for the benefit of others within their community, overcoming self-interest.
Shared identities can influence international relations, like Turkey advocating for Uighur rights due to common Turkic identity.
Identity communities help address challenges like development assistance, world health, and UN peacekeeping.

Types of Political Systems and International System

Head of State: Symbolic figurehead, often representing the nation (e.g., monarchs, presidents in some parliamentary systems, or ceremonial roles).
Head of Government: Responsible for running the government and making policy decisions, holding executive power (e.g., prime ministers, presidents in presidential systems, or chancellors).
International System: Network of relationships between states, defined by rules regarding membership, rights, responsibilities, and actions between states.
The modern international system has existed for only 500 years, with the concept of nation-states spreading in the past 200 years.
Decolonization led to new states, often with mismatched national identities and state borders, leading to substate nationalism.

Nation-States

Nation-states are countries where the population shares a common national identity, including language and culture.
As of 2023, the UN has 193 member states, ranging in population from over 1 billion to around 32,000.
Most states have fewer than 10 million people, while 16 countries with populations over 80 million account for two-thirds of the world's population.

Economic Power

GDP is the total of goods and services produced by a nation in one year.
The global economy is dominated by a few major states, with the 15 largest countries by both population and economy being significant players in world affairs.
Great powers possess significant military and economic strength, with superpowers holding global influence (e.g., US during the Cold War).
Some entities, like Taiwan, function independently but aren't formally recognized as states due to disputes or colonial status.
Quasi-states, including entities like the Vatican and Palestine, are nonmember observer states at the UN.

Nonstate Actors

Nonstate actors operate below or across state borders, influencing international relations.
Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are composed of national governments (e.g., UN, NATO).
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are private entities (e.g., Amnesty International, Red Cross).
Multinational corporations (MNCs) operate across borders and can influence government (e.g., ExxonMobil, Toyota).
Other actors include individuals, cities, and constituencies (e.g., Taylor Swift, al Qaeda).

Globalization

Three competing views exist on the process of globalization:
- Liberal economic perspective: Global marketplace brings growth and prosperity, with institutions like the IMF and EU becoming powerful.
- Skeptical perspective: World economies are no more integrated than before WWI, and the North-South gap is increasing.
- Transformationalist perspective: Globalization is profound but uncertain, eroding state sovereignty and diffusing authority.
Popular debates focus on corporations' growing power, disruptive costs of world markets, and disparities between the rich and poor.

The Current International System

The current international system has roots in Western civilization, particularly in Europe, from around 300 to 500 years ago.
This system has been spread globally over the past century, incorporating almost all of the world's territories into sovereign states.
Other civilizations existed before European influence and continue to affect international relations through their unique cultural traditions and expectations.

Precedents to International Relations

Greek city-states around 400 B.C. demonstrated interstate power politics as described by Thucydides in his account of the Peloponnesian Wars.
Greek influence expanded with Alexander the Great's conquests around 300 B.C., followed by the Roman Empire around A.D. 1, and later the Arab caliphate around A.D. 600.
China remained an independent civilization throughout history.
During China's "warring states" period, sophisticated states used warfare as a tool of power politics, as described in Sun Tzu's The Art of War.
Japan, influenced by China, developed its own civilization and isolated itself from Western influence until the Meiji restoration in the mid-19th century.

Power-Balancing System

The power-balancing system emphasizes great powers with strong military capabilities, global interests, and intense interactions.
This system of great-power relations has existed since around A.D. 1500, maintaining a stable structure and rules, though the specific members have changed.

The Thirty Years' War

The 1648 Treaty of Westphalia established the principles of state sovereignty and territorial integrity, defining the international system.

Rise and Fall of European Powers

In the eighteenth century, Britain's power increased with industrialization making France its main rival.
The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) resulted in a coalition of Britain, the Netherlands, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Russia, and Prussia defeating France.
The Congress of Vienna (1815) reasserted state sovereignty principles.

Emergence of New Powers

By the early twentieth century, three new rising powers emerged: the United States (the world's largest economy), Japan, and Italy.
The great-power system became global, with industrializing states expanding their global activities and military might.
By the late nineteenth century, European powers continued to acquire new colonies, leading to a scramble for territories in Africa in the 1890s.

Decolonization and the Postcolonial Era

After World War I, decolonization saw indigenous populations in Asia and Africa gaining independence, unlike the Americas, where local colonists took the lead.
This process continued until the mid-1970s, leaving almost no European colonies.
Newly independent states face significant challenges in the postcolonial era, with persistent economic patterns leading some to describe this period as neocolonial.

Nationalism

Nationalism, or devotion to the interests of one's nation over others, is considered by many to be the most significant force in world politics for the last two centuries.
A nation is typically defined as a population sharing a common identity including language and culture.

Industrialization

Industrialization involves using energy to drive machinery and accumulating such machinery along with its products.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the eighteenth century, marked by inventions like the steam engine, mechanized thread-spinner, and the cotton gin.
Britain dominated world trade through its technologically advanced economy, making its products competitive globally.
The United States surpassed Britain as the world's largest and most advanced economy in the early twentieth century.

The World Economy after World War II

The capitalist world economy was restructured under U.S. leadership after World War II.
The United States provided significant assistance to revive Western European economies through the Marshall Plan, as well as to Japan.
World trade expanded, and the global market became more interconnected through advancements in air transportation and telecommunication.
Electronics emerged as a leading sector, and technological progress accelerated throughout the twentieth century.

The G7, G8, and G20

Among the advanced industrialized economies, the G7 comprises France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
When Russia joins the G7, it becomes the G8.
The G20, which includes both developed and developing economies, provides oversight and advice on major economic issues.

The BRIC Countries

By the early 2000s, emerging economies like Brazil, Russia, India, and China, collectively known as the BRIC countries, were recognized as some of the world's fastest-growing economies.
This shift indicated a growing importance of developing economies over advanced industrialized countries.
South Africa joined the group in late 2010, making it BRICS.
These five countries contain 40% of the world's population and accounted for 18% of global economic activity in 2010.

Cold War Dynamics

Sino-Soviet split: China opposed peaceful coexistence with the US, creating tension with the Soviet Union in the 1960s.
Korean War (1950-1953): Communist North Korea attacked South Korea, prompting a UN-backed counterattack by the US and allies.
- China intervened, sending "volunteers" to aid North Korea, leading to a stalemate and a 1953 truce.
- The war hardened US attitudes towards Communism and strained future US-Chinese relations.
Geneva Summit (1955): First meeting between Cold War superpowers, leading to the reconstitution of Austria.
Post-Stalin Thaw: Temporary decrease in Cold War tensions following Stalin's death in 1953.
Renewed Tensions: Soviet actions in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968), the launch of Sputnik (1957), and the U-2 incident (1960) escalated tensions.
Bay of Pigs (1961): A failed US attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist regime in Cuba.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles in Cuba.
- The US imposed a naval blockade, resulting in the Soviets backing down and the US promising not to invade Cuba.
Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963): A result of the Cuban Missile Crisis, aimed at reducing tensions and initiating greater cooperation.
Proxy Wars: Superpowers competed for influence in the global South by supporting opposing factions in civil wars without direct intervention.
- Example: In the 1970s, the US backed Ethiopia while the Soviets supported Somalia.
US Cold War Policy: Viewing all regional conflicts through an East-West lens, leading to the support of unpopular pro-Western governments.
- The Vietnam War (1960s) exemplifies this, ultimately resulting in a communist takeover.
Post-Cold War Era:
- The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 after a failed coup attempt.
- Former Soviet republics transitioned to capitalism and democracy, forming the CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States).
- Western relations with Russia have varied due to economic issues, Russian nationalism, and increased geopolitical tensions after the annexation of Crimea (2014) and the 2022 invasion of Ukraine.
Notable Developments:
- Significant nuclear weapon reductions in the 1990s and the New Start treaty of 2010.
- Increased cooperation between great powers, especially during the immediate post-Cold War era.

Post-Cold War Conflicts

Yugoslavia Disintegration:
- After the Gulf War (1991) several republics declared independence.
- Ethnic Serbs, with support from Serbia and the Yugoslav army, engaged in violence, leading to the deaths and displacement of non-Serbs.
- The international community recognized Croatia and Bosnia's independence, but was hesitant to bear heavy costs to protect Bosnia.
Syrian Civil War:
- Russia intervened with airstrikes to support the Syrian government, while the US and allies backed rebels and Kurdish fighters against ISIS.
Yemeni Civil War:
- A complex conflict involving peaceful protests, violent repression, ethnic conflict, and political compromise.
- A transitional government, supported by Saudi Arabia and Western allies, fought a bloody war against rebel groups backed by Iran and al Qaeda.
Myanmar (Burma):
- The Aung San Suu Kyi government, after moving towards democracy, committed atrocities against the Rohingya minority in 2017, resulting in a humanitarian disaster.
Israeli-Arab Conflict:
- Hopes for peace rose in the 1990s, but worsened after peace talks failed in 2000.
- The 2006 Palestinian elections brought Hamas to power, resulting in increased violence.
- Israel fought both Hezbollah guerrillas in Lebanon and Hamas.
- Conflicts escalated significantly in October 2023, with Hamas attacks on Israel, leading to significant casualties and a worsening humanitarian crisis.
- Peace prospects remain bleak.

Globalization and Challenges

Post-Cold War Globalization: A period of significant economic globalization with new growth hubs emerging, especially in Asia.
2007-2008 Recession: A global financial crisis that severely impacted developed economies, causing unemployment, a decline in international trade, and economic anxiety.
COVID-19 Pandemic: A major global recession triggered by the pandemic.
European Economic Crisis: The 2008 recession triggered economic and political crises in Southern Europe, particularly Greece, leading to a bailout by the EU.

Public Opinion and International Relations

A majority of Americans consistently believe the US should be active in international affairs.
- The 1970s saw a rise in isolationist sentiment, influenced by the Vietnam War and economic troubles.
Public Opinion Influence: In democracies, public opinion acts as a constraint on leaders' decisions, making it unlikely for them to choose policies that would be unpopular.
Cold War and Public Opinion: During the Cold War, US political parties supported global involvement, shaping public opinion.
China's Strategy: Involves both conforming to and challenging the international system.
- Examples include the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and the Belt and Road Initiative.
- These initiatives challenge existing development organizations and raise questions about whether the international system can accommodate China's rising power.

Power in International Relations

Power is the ability to influence another actor to do something they would not otherwise do.
Power is seen as a capability, based on tangible and intangible characteristics of states, such as size, income levels, and armed forces.
GDP can be a useful indicator of state power, but it is an imprecise measurement.
Nonmaterial factors, such as national will, diplomatic skill, and popular support, also contribute to power.
The ability to effectively mobilize and deploy resources is crucial for wielding power.
Ideas, such as nationalism, religion, and ideology, can exert significant power and influence through psychological processes.
Soft power involves shaping the rules of behavior and influencing how others perceive their interests.

Hegemony

Hegemony refers to one state's dominance in the international system, dictating the rules and arrangements of international political and economic relations.
The hegemon is the state that holds this preponderance of power.
Hegemony can be either global or regional.

Examples of Hegemony

Britain dominated in the 19th century during the Pax Britannica (1815-1914).
The United States became the hegemon after World War II, with its GDP making up over half of the world's total in the late 1940s.
Hegemonic decline can occur as power disparities diminish and hegemons overextend themselves with costly military commitments.

Hegemonic Stability Theory

Hegemony provides order in the international system, reducing anarchy, deterring aggression, and promoting free trade.
Hegemons can enforce rules unilaterally, avoiding collective goods problems.
They can also maintain global free trade and promote economic growth.

US Internationalism and Hegemony

US leadership in world affairs has been a topic of debate.
Internationalists supported US leadership, citing the failure of isolationism in preventing World War II.
During the Cold War, US leaders promoted strong internationalism to counter Soviet and Chinese Communism.
The post-Cold War era saw a shift towards US isolationism due to cost concerns and reactions to globalization.
The 2001 terrorist attacks revived support for US interventionism, but the Iraq War and other challenges spurred a new isolationist trend.

US Ambivalence in International Engagement

The US faces a balancing act between unilateralism and multilateralism.
Multilateral approaches, working through international institutions, enhance US power but limit its autonomy.
The US has experienced periods of both engagement and withdrawal from international organizations.

The Early Westphalian System (1500-2000)

The modern international system, characterized by powerful states, sovereignty, balance of power, and periods of hegemony, is often traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
This treaty established the principles of independent, sovereign states.
European states began forming these principles in the 16th century, prior to Westphalia.
The system was built on the ability of states or coalitions to balance the power of others, preventing the creation of a universal empire.
The specific members of this system have changed over time, but the balance of power among top states has remained a constant feature.

NATO and the Balance of Power

NATO has expanded eastward, integrating new member states, especially in Eastern Europe.
This expansion has led to concerns from Russia, who view it as aggressive and anti-Russian.
NATO created the Partnership for Peace, which includes many Eastern European and former Soviet states, including Russia.
Tensions have escalated between Russia and NATO, particularly after Russia's invasions of Ukraine in 2014 and 2022.

US-Japanese Security Treaty

This bilateral alliance established in 1951 aims to counter the potential Soviet threat to Japan.
The US maintains troops in Japan, and Japan pays the US to offset the costs.
The alliance is asymmetrical, with the US committed to defending Japan but not vice versa.
Japan's primary alliance is with the US, and the US contributes a larger share of military power compared to its share in NATO.

Power Resources

The US rebuilt its military after WWII due to its economic resources
Power elements are fungible, money can be used to obtain other capabilities
Military forces vs foreign aid is an example trade-off

Military Power

Realists prioritize military force as the key element of national power
Conflicts often require more than just military power
Diplomacy and economic aid should be funded especially in asymmetric warfare, where conflicts are political
Morality can be used to enhance power by generating the will to use it and attracting allies
Moralistic rhetoric can be overused to justify self-interest and harm a nation's credibility

Geopolitics & Geography

States can enhance their power using geography to bolster military capabilities
Key geopolitical issues: securing allies and bases near rival powers, controlling strategic trade routes, and key natural resources
Melting ice shelves open new military shipping routes

Espionage

States acknowledge espionage as a common practice and it's their responsibility to prevent it
Despite the end of the Cold War, espionage continues including among friendly nations

Security Dilemma

States actions to ensure their security may end up threatening other states
Security dilemma is a major cause of arms races, as states spend huge money on weapons that don't provide real security
Realists view the Dilemma as unsolvable, while liberals believe it can be addressed through institutions

International System

Traditional concepts of state autonomy and territorial integrity are being challenged
Some scholars believe states are becoming obsolete as main actors
Others believe states will remain central, with a balance of power being a key feature
A future tripolar world is possible with power centers in North America, Europe, and East Asia
Bipolar systems have two predominant states or rival alliance blocs
Unipolar systems have a single center of power known as hegemony
Multipolar systems have five or six centers of power not grouped into alliances
Peace is best maintained by hegemony (unipolarity) and bipolarity, rather than multipolarity
Power transition theory states: the largest wars occur when rising powers challenge the most powerful

Power Transition Theory

Major interstate conflict occurs when power is distributed relatively evenly
Status quo powers attempt to maintain existing rules
Challengers may seek to change these rules
A rising power might face relative deprivation, feeling they are not doing as well as others despite absolute improvements

US-China Dynamic

China is believed to be challenging international rules and norms that favor the US
The US fears China's growing power will challenge its own

Alliances and Commitments

Powerful states often form alliances with weaker "client" states
Extended deterrence is threatening to attack the adversary of a smaller state
Powerful states risk being drawn into war over minor regional issues
Not supporting clients can diminish credibility
NATO is a key U.S. led alliance

NATO

NATO includes Western Europe and North America
It accounts for nearly half of world GDP
Members include: The US, Canada, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, Croatia, and Montenegro
Its purpose is to deter Soviet power in Europe
The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet counterpoint to NATO

Japan's Role

Japan's Self-Defense Forces are strong but restricted by public opinion
Japan's military role is growing though it is still smaller than its economic power could support
Japan has participated in peacekeeping missions and seeks a permanent seat on the UN Security Council

Other US Alliances

The US also has alliances with: Australia and South Korea
Close U.S. collaborations with militaries in other countries, like Israel, make them de facto allies

CIS

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed by former Soviet Republics, excluding the Baltic states.
Russia is the leading member, with Ukraine being the second largest.
Most international alignments and coalitions are not formal alliances
China and Russia maintain some independence, but they have developed close relationships

Liberal Institutionalism

Key Idea: States can achieve peace and stability by adhering to mutually agreed-upon rules enforced by international institutions.
Realists: Believe war is a rational, short-term strategy for states to achieve national interests.
Liberals: Believe war is irrational and harmful to the long-term best interests of states.
Assumptions of Neoliberal Institutionalism: States are unitary actors pursuing self-interest within an anarchic international system.
Neoliberals: Believe states cooperate because cooperation benefits them, and that institutions can facilitate cooperation and reduce the chances of exploitation.

Reciprocity in International Relations

Definition: Reciprocity relies on mutual exchanges and concessions between states, enforcing norms and rules without a central authority.
Examples:
- International Security: Arms control agreements and peacekeeping missions.
- International Political Economy: The WTO and GATT punish states violating trade rules by allowing others to impose tariffs.
Benefits: Reciprocity can encourage cooperation even in contentious situations, as states are motivated to negotiate when offered cooperative gestures and reciprocation.
Example of Reciprocity: In 1969, the US relaxed its trade embargo with China, and China responded by releasing three American citizens, leading to further cooperation and Nixon's visit to China in 1972.

Prisoner's Dilemma

Basic Theory: Two parties acting in self-interest may choose to defect, leading to losses for both, but cooperation benefits both parties.
Application to IR: Repeated interactions and a strategy of strict reciprocity can incentivize cooperation, as defection leads to retaliatory responses.

Collective Security

Definition: A broad alliance of most major international actors for the purpose of jointly opposing aggression.
Ideal Scenario: A universal organization, such as the UN, is present to both the aggressor and its opponents.
Examples:
- League of Nations: Failed due to incomplete membership and inaction during the 1930s.
- United Nations: The successor to the League of Nations, intended to promote collective security.
- Regional Organizations: OAS, Arab League, African Union.

Collective Security Success Factors

Commitment: Members must fulfill their alliance commitments and avoid free-riding on the efforts of others.
Cost of Action: Powerful states may not find it in their immediate interest to confront an aggressor attacking a weaker state.
Consensus on Aggression: Consensus among members on what constitutes aggression is crucial, but the UN Security Council has been ineffective against great power aggression due to the power of veto.

Examples of Collective Security

The Gulf War (1990-1991): The collective security system successfully united the great powers in opposing Iraq's aggression against Kuwait.
Iraq Invasion (2002-2003): The US and its allies bypassed the UN Security Council, leading to a prolonged and unpopular counterinsurgency war, highlighting the dangers of bypassing the collective security system.

Collective Security and Failed States

Definition: Failed states have weak control over their territory and become havens for illicit activities.
Example: Somalia has a weak government incapable of controlling large areas, leading to a haven for terrorist organizations and pirates.

Democratic Peace

Idea: Democracies have a fundamentally different foreign policy compared to authoritarian regimes, tending to be more peaceful.
Historically Proven: Democracies rarely fight one another, while they do fight authoritarian states.
Possible Explanations: Democracies tend to be capitalist states with greater economic interdependence and citizens with greater sympathy for other democratic citizens.

United States and the United Nations

Support: The US is a key contributor to the UN and its missions, but American public opinion remains divided.
Concerns: Some Americans believe the UN does not support US interests, while supporters of the UN point to its service to all countries and its challenges to other major powers.
Public Opinion: The majority of Americans hold a favorable view of the UN, which has remained relatively stable despite ongoing debates about its role in US foreign policy.

Constructivism examines how actors define their national interests, threats, and relationships through social interactions.
Unlike realism and liberalism, constructivism views state interests as dynamic and shaped by social perceptions and norms.
It emphasizes the importance of identity, shared histories, and alliances in shaping international relations.
States interact based on their perceptions of each other and the norms that govern their interactions.

Peace Studies and Nonviolence

Peace studies explore how to achieve positive peace, focusing on individual and group actions that challenge war and militarism.
Peace movements involve large-scale protests against specific wars or militarism in general.
The philosophy of nonviolence emphasizes avoiding violence in all forms as a method of achieving peace and justice.
While not a dominant approach for states, nonviolence has played a significant role in movements like those led by Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Gender in International Relations

Feminist scholarship in IR challenges traditional perspectives on international relations, arguing that gender biases are embedded in many theories.
Realist assumptions about anarchy and sovereignty are seen as reflecting male-centric views.
Feminist IR theory recognizes the importance of gender in understanding global issues and the impact of women's experiences on international politics.
Feminist IR scholars criticize the underrepresentation of women in foreign policy and highlight the need for more inclusive perspectives.

Postmodern Feminism in International Relations

Postmodern feminists challenge the foundational assumptions of realism, particularly its gendered nature.
They argue that gender roles are socially constructed and that realism ignores the complex interplay of gender and power in international relations.
They criticize the traditional "masculine" aspects of IR and explore the varied roles women play in war, diplomacy, and international affairs.
They reject traditional frameworks like "just war" theory, arguing that it fails to capture the nuances and complexities of war and peace.

Total War

Total war involves the complete mobilisation of society and economy towards a war effort, targeting the whole enemy society.
World War II is an example of total war.
Total war originated with the Napoleonic Wars, using mass conscription.

Limited War

Aims to achieve specific objectives without full enemy surrender or occupation.
The 1991 U.S.-led war against Iraq is an example.
Limited wars often involve border disputes, such as Russia's expulsion of Georgian troops in 2008.

Raids

Limited wars consisting of single actions, like bombings or quick incursions.
The 2007 Israeli bombing of a Syrian facility suspected to be a nuclear research facility is an example.
While limited in destruction and quickly resolved, repeated raids or those fueling retaliation can escalate into conflicts.

Civil War

Conflict between factions within a state, aiming to establish or prevent a new government.
Includes changing the system of government, replacing leaders, or seceding.
Examples include the U.S. Civil War and Eritrea's war for independence.

Secessionist Civil Wars

Aim to create a new state by breaking away from the existing one.
The U.S. Civil War and Eritrea's war for independence are examples.

Theoretical Approaches to War

Used by political scientists to find general explanations for war across diverse contexts.
World War I can be seen as caused by power shifts in Europe, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand serving as a catalyst.

Levels of Analysis

A framework highlighting multiple causes at different levels for important events in international relations.

The Individual Level

Explains foreign policy decisions through the actions and leadership of political leaders.
Frederick the Great's leadership in the Seven Years' War was crucial for German unification.
Early realism attributed war to human nature, but its explanatory power is limited due to the static nature of human nature.
Individual-level factors like worldviews, psychological processes, and experiences can influence a leader's propensity for conflict or peace.
The "Madman theory” suggests leaders with erratic behavior can secure better deals.

The Domestic Level

Focuses on characteristics of states and societies that influence their use of violence in conflict resolution.
Examples include:
- “Mirror image perceptions” between Western and Muslim-majority countries.
- Radical Islamist movements challenging traditional state sovereignty.
- Islamist movements gaining support from impoverished areas, often providing services the government fails to deliver.
- Islamist movements using religious identity, especially regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict.
- Islamist movements drawing support from Muslims concerned about conflicts where Christian forces attack Muslim civilians.
- The 2003 Iraq War intensifying anti-American sentiment and radicalizing politics in the Muslim world.
- Pro-democracy forces ousting Pakistan's military ruler and installing an elected government in 2008, despite the assassination of the movement's leader.
- The war in Afghanistan straining relations between Pakistan and the US and NATO allies.
- Al Qaeda as a transnational network recruiting, training, and supporting fighters in foreign conflicts, including Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen.
- Al Qaeda's terror bombings in Bali, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Russia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Iraq, and Turkey.
- Al Qaeda's role in the Yemen civil war, where a branch of al Qaeda-affiliated fighters has attempted to bomb U.S.-bound aircraft and seized territory during political unrest.
- The US conducting drone attacks against Yemeni militants since 2010.
- The ongoing Yemen civil war between the Yemeni government and the Houthi movement, with Saudi Arabia intervening.
- The UN calling for a ceasefire in 2020 to prevent a coronavirus outbreak and encourage peace talks.
- The UN declaring Yemen the world's worst humanitarian disaster.
- The African Union force ousting al Shabab fighters, affiliated with al Qaeda, from most cities in Somalia.
- Al Shabab's revenge attacks on Ethiopia and Uganda through bombings in Uganda during the 2010 World Cup finals.
- Kenya's military intervention in Somalia against al Shabab.
- The overthrow of Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi empowering armed Islamist groups, leading to violence in Mali.
- Islamist groups seizing control of northern Mali, using weapons from Libya.
- French military intervention to oust Islamists and maintain a presence in the Sahel region.
- Boko Haram attacks in Nigeria against government officials and civilians since 2009, including a notable attack on several girls' schools.
- Hamas, a radical Islamist faction and the Gaza chapter of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, as a significant Sunni militia in Palestine.
- Hamas sending suicide bombers to kill Israelis and winning parliamentary elections in 2006.
- The ongoing animosity between Hamas and Fatah over power, despite both claiming to represent the Palestinian people.
- The U.S. and Israel opposing reconciliation efforts, viewing Fatah as the sole negotiable partner.
- Russia and China facing Islamist violence within their borders.

Balance of Power

The power of one or more states is used to counterbalance the power of another state or group of states in the international system.
The concept refers to any ratio of power capabilities, a relatively equal ratio, or the process of forming counterbalancing coalitions to prevent one state from dominating a region.
The balance of power theory suggests that regular counterbalancing fosters stability in the international system.
This stability ensures state sovereignty and prevents the emergence of a universal empire, but it involves recurring wars to adjust power relations.
Alliances are crucial for maintaining the balance of power.
Forming alliances against a threatening state is usually more swift, cost-effective, and efficient than building up one's own capabilities.
During the Cold War, the U.S. utilized military and political alliances to encircle the Soviet Union and hinder its territorial expansion.
Some states act as balancers, shifting their support to oppose the strongest state or alliance.
Historically, Britain played this role in Europe, and China during the Cold War.
States may "bandwagon" with the most powerful state instead of balancing against it.
After World War II, many major states joined the U.S. bloc rather than forming a coalition to contain U.S. power.
States might balance against threats rather than raw power.
Small states may exploit rival powers against each other, as Cuba did during the Cold War.
Small states might not mobilize to balance against threats due to domestic reasons.
After the Cold War, balance-of-power theory predicted closer relations among Russia, China, and Europe to counter U.S. dominance.
Russian-Chinese relations improved significantly, particularly in arms trade and border demilitarization.
French leaders criticized U.S. "hyperpower."
With U.S. power stretched in Afghanistan and Iraq, a weakened economy, and rising Chinese power, more countries are now balancing against China.
Japan made military agreements with South Korea and the Philippines and reinforced its U.S. ties to counter China's growing power.

Power Distribution

The distribution of power among states is a key aspect of the international system, impacting both globally and regionally.
Each state's power is balanced by that of other states, maintaining a balance of power.
Neorealism, a 1980s adaptation of realism, explains international events based on the international distribution of power rather than the internal characteristics of individual states.
Neorealism employs general laws to explain events, but it lacks the complexity of traditional realism, which considered factors like geography, political will, and diplomacy.
Neoclassical realists aim to reintroduce these elements into neorealism.
Polarity refers to the distribution of power within the international system, encompassing the underlying power of various participants and their alliance groupings.
A multipolar system features five or six independent centers of power not grouped into alliances, with each state participating independently and on relatively equal terms.
While stable, multipolar systems frequently experience wars to adjust power relations.
Tripolar systems, with three centers of power, are rare due to the tendency for two-against-one alliances to form.
The "strategic triangle" of the U.S., Soviet Union, and China during the 1960s and 1970s exemplifies a tripolar system.
A central dilemma in a tripolar system concerns the size of standing military forces to maintain in peacetime.
Strategies shape policies regarding a state's willingness to use its power capabilities.
Estimating the will of a nation or leader is challenging.
Leaders might bluff about their intentions to fight over an issue.
China's strategic actions align with rational power deployment, particularly concerning Taiwan's independence.
China views Taiwan as part of its territory, a stance supported by the UN and the U.S.
Taiwan, initially representing all of China, sought independence after the 1949 civil war, with many Taiwanese now favoring it.
Despite lacking the military power for a successful invasion, China has threatened war if Taiwan declares independence, deterring such a declaration.
In 1996, China conducted military exercises near Taiwan, prompting the U.S. to send aircraft carriers as a warning.
Taiwan has engaged in diplomacy to gain influence in the world, instead of risking war by declaring independence.
China has countered Taiwan's moves by breaking diplomatic relations with countries that recognize Taiwan and punishing any steps towards Taiwanese independence.
China uses various positive and negative leverages to counter Taiwanese ties with other countries.

Arms Races

An arms race is a reciprocal process where states build up military capabilities in response to each other, leading to a rapid escalation of weapons production.
This mutual escalation of threats erodes confidence, reduces cooperation, and increases the likelihood of a crisis or accident causing one side to strike first.
The U.S.-Soviet nuclear arms race exemplifies this process, resulting in massive nuclear arsenals on both sides.

Rationality in International Relations

Most realists (and many non-realists) assume that those wielding power in statecraft behave rationally to influence others.
This view implies that states and other international actors can identify and prioritize their interests, with actions aimed at advancing these interests.
Many realists assume the actor wielding power is a single entity capable of coherent decision-making, known as the unitary actor assumption or strong leader assumption.
The exercise of power aims to advance the national interest, the interests of the state itself.
The national interest is complex and multifaceted, including the interests of government agencies, domestic groups, the need to prevail in conflicts, and the ability to cooperate internationally.
Rationality implies that actors engage in a cost-benefit analysis, weighing the costs and benefits of possible actions.
Applying power incurs costs and should yield commensurate gains.
States typically avoid wars they expect to lose unless the political benefits outweigh the costs.
However, it is challenging to compare intangible political benefits with tangible war costs.
Rational actors can miscalculate, especially with faulty information, and human behavior and luck can be unpredictable.

The Prisoner's Dilemma

Game theory is a branch of mathematics focused on predicting bargaining outcomes.
It involves settings where two or more players choose among alternative moves, resulting in a set of payoffs (utility) for each player.
Game theory aims to deduce likely outcomes based on players' preferences and possible moves.
Games such as Prisoner's Dilemma and Chicken have been used to analyze various sorts of international interactions.
Analyzing a game mathematically assumes each player chooses moves rationally to maximize their payoff.
A key distinction is between zero-sum games, where one player's gain equals the other's loss, and non-zero-sum games, where both players can gain or lose.
In zero-sum games, communication or cooperation is pointless due to opposing interests.
In non-zero-sum games, coordinating moves can maximize the total payoff, though players may still compete for a larger share of that payoff.

Nationalism

Nationalism is devotion to one's nation above other states.
A nation is a population with shared identity, often including language and culture.
States created nations by unifying territories, like France, fostering shared identity.
Nations created states when populations sought sovereignty based on their shared identity.

Ethnic Conflicts

Ethnic groups often dislike each other due to historical conflicts over resources, territories, exploitation, or political control.
Kurds, an ethnic group lacking a home state, desire to create Kurdistan but live in multiple countries that oppose losing territory.
Ethnic conflicts can lead to forced border redrawing, ethnic cleansing, or extermination of minorities for a unified, larger nation-state.
Examples include:
- Serbs attempting ethnic cleansing in post-Yugoslavia in the 1990s.
- Kyrgyzstan in 2010, where Kyrgyz majority displaced Uzbek minority.

Genocide

Genocide is the systematic extermination of ethnic or religious groups.
Examples:
- Nazi Germany exterminating Jews, homosexuals, Roma, communists, and others in the Holocaust.
- Rwanda in 1994, where Hutu government massacred Tutsis and opposing Hutus, fueled by historical power struggles and colonial exploitation.
- Darfur, Sudan, where rebels faced brutal government-backed militia attacks.

Causes of Ethnic Hostility

Long-standing historical conflicts over territories, resources, exploitation, or political domination contribute to ethnic hostility.
Social psychology theories argue threats from out-groups can intensify in-group biases, fueled by history, myths, and propaganda.
Politicians exploit these feelings to gain power, leading to dehumanization of out-groups and breaking down social norms, allowing atrocities like killing to occur.

International Response to Genocide

The international community often remains passive in response to genocide, highlighting the fragility of human rights norms compared to non-interference.
While apologies followed Rwanda and Darfur, the damage was already done.
The responsibility to protect emerged as an international norm to prevent genocide, war crimes, and other crimes against humanity.

Territorial Disputes

Territorial disputes generate significant international conflict, like:
- Russia's claim to Ukraine.
- Israel's borders, particularly the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and Golan Heights.
- Kashmir region, where India, Pakistan, and China intersect.

Peaceful Resolutions

Some territorial disputes have been resolved peacefully:
- Argentina and Chile resolved a century-long border dispute in 1994 through a panel of Latin American judges.
- Nigeria peacefully ceded the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon in 2006 through the World Court, UN mediation, and international monitoring.

The Potential of Diplomacy

Despite realist predictions, Nigeria's decision to cede territory demonstrates that states can act in their self-interest by prioritizing stability and attracting foreign investment.
Peaceful resolutions highlight the potential of international institutions and diplomacy to address and resolve territorial conflicts.

Lingering Disputes

The Kashmir region remains a serious border dispute between India, Pakistan, and China.
The Indian-held part of Kashmir is predominantly Muslim, a majority in Pakistan but a minority in India.
A Line of Control divides the province.