International Relations: Core Concepts

Core Concepts in International Relations

• Nationalism is the belief in self-governance for people who share a culture.
• The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War and established state sovereignty.
• Sovereignty is a state's authority to govern itself without external interference.
• The Age of Absolutism was a period when absolute monarchs centralized power.
• Imperialism involves extending power through conquest or economic control.

20th Century Conflicts and Outcomes

• The Russian Revolution in 1917 aimed to create a classless, communist society.
• The Treaty of Versailles, which followed WWI, imposed reparations on Germany.
• The League of Nations, an organization founded in 1920, sought to maintain global peace.
• "Victor's Peace" refers to post-war settlements that favor the victors while punishing the losers.
• Fascism is an authoritarian ideology that emphasizes nationalism and militarism.
• Appeasement refers to making concessions to avoid conflict, exemplified by the Munich Agreement.
• Tensions arising from differences between ethnic groups are referred to as ethnic tensions.
• Marxist ideology advocates for a classless society and communal ownership.
• The Bolsheviks were a Russian revolutionary group led by Lenin.
• Post-Russian Revolution political and military rivalry is referred to as Cold War Tensions
• The German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact in 1939 prevented attacks between Germany and the USSR.
• The Non-Aggression Pact allowed Hitler to invade Poland unopposed, triggering WWII.
• The shift led to the Cold War between the U.S. and USSR following WWII creating a Post-WWII Global Order

International Organizations and Governance

• International Relations is the study of state interactions, diplomacy, and conflict.
• Normative Theories are ones that focus on ethical standards in international relations.
• The United Nations was founded in 1945 to maintain global peace.
• The Security Council is the UN body responsible for international peacekeeping.
• The five permanent members of the Security Council have veto power.
• Veto Power allows permanent members to block UN resolutions.
• Global Governance is the cooperative handling of global issues by states.

Concepts and Theories

• Realism is a theory that focuses on power and national interests.
• Liberalism is a theory that emphasizes cooperation and international institutions.
• Constructivism is a theory that focuses on social constructs in international relations.
• A Power Vacuum is instability that follows the collapse of governing entities.

Colonialism & Its Aftermath

• Militarism is the emphasis on military power and readiness.
• Colonization is establishing control over foreign territories.
• Postcolonial Struggles are movements for independence after colonial rule.
• Resource Exploitation is the extraction of resources from colonized regions.
• Cultural Suppressionis the stifling of local cultures by colonial powers.
• Following WWII, former colonies Gained independence through Decolonization
• After gaining independence, post-colonial nations faced economic challenges.

Cold War Dynamics

• The development of Nuclear Weapons changed global security dynamics after Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• From 1947 to 1991, the Geopolitical struggle was referred to as the Cold War Duration.
• Bi-Polarity divided the world into U.S. and Soviet spheres.
• Between capitalism and communism during the Cold War, there was an Ideological Rivalry.
• Capitalism, socialism, and communism are examples of competing Economic Systems
• During the Cold War, countries were divided into First, Second, and Third Worlds based on their Geographical Divisions.
• The Non-Aligned Movement consisted of countries independent from Cold War blocs.
• NATO, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military alliance formed in 1949 against Soviet expansion.
• The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet response to NATO and was dissolved in 1991.
• In politics, a Zero-Sum Game means one side's gain equals another's loss .
• Containment was a U.S. strategy to prevent the spread of communism.
• George Kennan was a diplomat who outlined the containment policy in 1946.
• The Marshall Plan was the 1948 U.S. aid program for rebuilding Europe, which provided $12 Billion in aid.
• During the Cold War, the Proxy Wars refers to the indirect conflicts between U.S. and USSR.
• Arms Control Treaties are agreements to limit nuclear weapons proliferation.
• There was Cold War competition for Developing World Influence in non-aligned nations.
• Peacekeeping Missions are authorized by the UN Security Council to maintain order.
• The Containment Policy focused to prevent communism by stabilizing Western Europe.
• There was Soviet Development Aid to support socialist governments in developing nations.
• The Cold War Impacted on Democracy across global democratic governance.
• The CIA conducted Coups to overthrow governments threatening U.S. interests.
• The KGB was the Soviet intelligence agency for espionage and repression.
• In 1956 an Uprising in Hungary was crushed by Soviet military intervention.
• The Prague Spring was a Czechoslovak movement for political liberalization.
• Détente eased tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union.
• In the 1970s Nixon/Kissinger and China Improved U.S.-China relations.
• Gorbachev's Reforms Perestroika and glasnost aimed at reforming USSR.
• Francis Fukuyama Proclaimed liberal democracy as the 'end of history'.
• John Mearsheimer Predicted chaos post-Cold War due to power shifts.

Ideologies & Conflicts

• Samuel Huntington believed that future conflicts will be cultural, not ideological.
• Arms control agreements during détente period are referred to as SALT Treaties.
• A Military alliance of Soviet-aligned Eastern European states is called the Warsaw Pact.
• During the Cold War, soviet support for uprisings against Western influence was called Revolutionary Movements.
• Military Assistance was Support provided by the Soviet Union to allies.
• Economic Control was used when Soviet influence was maintained through aid to satellite states.
• Governments backed by the Soviet Union suppressing opposition were know as Single-Party States.
• Military Intervention was the Soviet response to uprisings in Eastern Europe.
• Cold War Scholars debated implications of the Cold War's end.
• Cold War bipolarity provided stability known as Power Structure.
• Conflicts based on civilization values and identities are known as Cultural Clashes.
• The U.S. promoted Free-Market Economies during the Cold War.
• Nations under Soviet control sought after Democratic Reforms.

Post-Cold War Era

• The fall of the Soviet Union resulted in a Post-Cold War period marked by U.S. dominance.
• KGB engaged in Espionage Operations to gather intelligence on the West.
• NATO Expansion grew to include former Soviet bloc nations.
• Globalization is the increased interconnectedness of economies and cultures worldwide.
• Rise of China refers to the emergence of China as a significant global power.
• The Unipolar Moment refers to the U.S. as the sole superpower after the Soviet collapse.
• When a state acts independently in international relations is consider Unilateralism
• The 2003 Iraq War was a conflict initiated by U.S. to oust Saddam Hussein.
• The Pivot to Asia is the U.S. strategy to counter China's influence in Asia.
• The Ukraine Crisis is a conflict fueled by NATO expansion perceived as a threat.
• Economic Crises are challenges to post-Cold War order from economic instability.
• Terrorism is a global threat challenging the post-Cold War order.

Realism in Depth

• Self-interested power competition between states is described as Realism.
• Thucydides was a historian who emphasized power struggles in international relations.
• Machiavelli advocated pragmatic use of power in governance.
• Thomas Hobbes described human nature as chaotic without strong authority.
• Classical Realism focuses on human nature as the root cause of conflict.
• Neo-Realism emphasizes the international system structure as the driver of conflict.
• Self-Help says states must rely on their own resources for security.
• Balance of Power describes when states form alliances to prevent dominance by one.
• The Security Dilemma is when one state's security measures threaten others, causing conflict.
• Hegemonic Stability Theory says a dominant power maintains global order and stability.
• Offensive Realism says states seek to maximize power and influence.
• Defensive Realism says states prioritize security over aggressive power expansion.
• Realists view liberalism as overly optimistic and naive.
• The importance of the military for state power is emphasized in Military Strength
• State priorities in international actions are a Realist focus on National Interest

Liberalism & Cooperation

• Liberalism emphasizes cooperation and institutions for global peace and critiques realism's pessimistic views.
• Kant proposed that republican democracies could achieve lasting peace.
• Perpetual Peace is Kant's idea of achieving peace through democracy and cooperation.
• Cooperation is essential for global stability among states.
• Democratic Peace says that democracies are less likely to engage in war.
• Trade Promotes peace through economic interdependence.
• Liberal Institutionalism focuses on international institutions facilitating cooperation.
• Institutions are mechanisms that reduce uncertainty and promote cooperation.
• Complex Interdependence says that multiple interaction channels reduce the likelihood of conflict.
• Transparency, or openness in political decisions, reduces conflict.
• Economic Interdependence increases the costs of conflicts through mutual reliance
• Checks and Balances prevent abuse of power in democracies.
• Environmental Protection is a shared interest fostering state cooperation.
• Human Rights is a common interest promoting peaceful coexistence.
• Conflict Management are strategies to resolve disputes without war.
• Collective Action refers to joint efforts to achieve common goals.

Marxism & Global Economics

• Marxism views the global system through economic class and power.
• Economic Structuralism says that global capitalism perpetuates inequality and exploitation.
• Class refers to social divisions based on production ownership.
• Historical Materialism says that historical developments are driven by material economic forces.
• Base and Superstructure means that the economic base determines societal superstructure elements.
• International Organizations promote cooperation among states globally.
• Influence of democratic decisions and likelihood of conflict through Public Opinion
• Multinational Corporations influence global economic structures.
• The World Bank supports economic development and stability.
• The IMF, or International Monetary Fund, stabilizes economies.
• Economic Disparities are differences in wealth affecting global relations.
• The Proletariat is the working class that is exploited by the bourgeoisie.
• The Bourgeoisie are owners of capital in Marxist theory.
• Capitalist States uses ideologies to maintain economic inequality.

Theories & Justice

• Normative Theory studies ethical aspects of global politics and justice.
• Emancipatory Theory aims to free individuals from oppressive systems.
• Lenin expanded Marxist theory to include imperialism.
• Imperialism is when powerful states control weaker regions for gain.
• Dependency Theory says that underdeveloped nations depend on wealthier countries.
• World Systems Theory categorizes countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery.
• Gramsci focused on civil society's role in power maintenance.
• The Centaur Concept is a combination of economic and ideological control.
• Chomsky critiques Manufacturing Consent when medias shapes public opinion.
• Justice entails fair treatment and distribution of resources.
• Human Rights are fundamental rights entitled to all individuals.
• Equity is fairness in treatment and opportunity for all.

Constructivism

• Constructivism says that ideas and norms shape state behavior in IR.
• The End of the Cold War shift in ideas influenced U.S.-Soviet relations.
• There is Change in International Structures where structures evolve, affecting state behavior over time.
• Norms in Constructivism are shared expectations that guide state actions in IR.
• Structures Constitute says the international structures shape state identities and interests.
• Social Construction means identity and interests are shaped by social interactions.

Power & Control

• Hegemony is the dominance of one group over others through consent.
• Exploitation is utilizing resources of weaker nations for profit.
• Global Inequalities are disparities in wealth and power among nations.
• Ideological Control is influencing beliefs to maintain power structures.
• Cultural Hegemony is dominance of one culture over others in society.
• Economic Control means manipulating economic resources to maintain power.
• Public Opinion are the collective attitudes and beliefs of the populace.
• Propaganda Tool Media used to promote specific political agendas.
• Materialist Theories focus on tangible factors like power and resources.