International Relations: Alliances and Security

A situation where there is no central authority to enforce rules or laws.

Agreements between states to cooperate militarily in case of conflict.

A group of states working together to maintain peace and security for all members.

The theory that states balance their power by forming alliances to prevent any one state from becoming too dominant.

When weaker states join a stronger power in order to gain benefits, often in anticipation of a war.

A problem in which everyone benefits from a common good, but some individuals may not contribute, relying on others to do the work.

The ability of an alliance or CSO to be trusted and taken seriously by other states. This involves demonstrating commitment and capability.

A situation where the contributions of alliance members are unequal, with some members bearing a greater share of the burden.

A situation where countries or groups of countries agree to cooperate to prevent aggression and maintain peace. It involves a shared commitment to respond collectively to threats against any member.

The power to block a decision in the UN Security Council. Permanent members (U.S., UK, France, Russia, China) have this power, which can lead to biased policies by preventing action.

The principle of balancing power between states to prevent any single actor from dominating. States form alliances or take other measures to ensure no one state becomes too powerful.

Conflict resolution using military force to directly confront aggressors and stop their actions. This type of UN operation involves active intervention to restore peace.

Interposing an armed force between warring parties to prevent further violence and create a space for negotiations. This requires the consent of the host country.

The ability of a country to produce a good or service more efficiently than another country, using fewer resources or achieving higher output.

The ability of a country to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost compared to other countries. It focuses on what a country does best with its existing resources.

The factors that contribute to a country's production capabilities, including land, labor, and capital. Each factor plays a crucial role in shaping a country's trade patterns.

A theory that states countries will export goods that use their most abundant factor of production. Countries rich in land tend to export agriculture, while labor-rich countries export labor-intensive goods.

Taxes imposed on imports or exports to influence trade patterns. They can be used to protect domestic industries or generate revenue.

Limits on the quantity of goods allowed to be imported. They create artificial scarcity and can protect domestic industries.

Financial assistance provided by governments to domestic industries to make them more competitive. They can be used to support struggling sectors or encourage exports.

A complete ban on the import or export of certain products. These restrictions can be imposed for reasons such as national security or ethical concerns.

A situation where a country benefits from trade because it can specialize in producing goods or services that it is relatively more efficient at, allowing it to consume more goods overall.

Consumers benefit from cheaper goods, and export-focused industries thrive. However, it can hurt protected industries and workers in uncompetitive sectors.

Local industries benefit, as they face less competition from imports. However, consumers pay higher prices, and exporters may face retaliation from other countries.

Trade policies are influenced by who benefits most – either resource-rich regions or specific industries.

A situation where two countries could benefit from cooperation (free trade), but each acts in its own self-interest, leading to suboptimal outcomes for both.

Focus on producing goods where you're relatively better, even if you're not the absolute best. It leads to gains for everyone.

Trade is win-win! Countries specialize in what they do best, leading to affordable goods for everyone.

Trade is complex! Winners and losers emerge, and politics play a role. International institutions like the WTO help manage this complexity.

The WTO is a stronger enforcer of trade rules than the GATT, advocating for complete trade liberalization.

Governments can offer retraining programs and unemployment benefits to help people impacted by free trade transition to new jobs and industries.

Countries borrowing money or investing in each other to help their economies grow. But, the international financial system can lead to conflicts, crises, and burdens like debt crises.

Buying bonds, loans, or stocks in another country without controlling the business. Examples include buying government bonds or company shares.

A company from one country builds or buys a facility in another country and directly manages it. For example, a U.S. car company building a factory in India.

Developing countries borrow money because they don't have enough capital to grow. This helps them build infrastructure and fund economic growth.

Investors lend money to other countries for higher returns, access to resources like oil, or better business environments.

Borrowers struggle to repay loans due to economic problems, leading to austerity measures like tax hikes and spending cuts.

Lenders face the risk of borrowers not repaying their loans, causing financial losses for the lenders.

Multinational Corporations (MNCs) invest in foreign countries to build factories, offices, or facilities, like Google opening a data center in Singapore.

MNCs invest abroad seeking cheap labor, local resources, new markets, or countries with looser regulations.

Host countries complain that MNCs pay low taxes, dominate local markets, and may disrespect local culture. Home countries complain about job outsourcing and lack of investment back home.

The problem of borrowers convincing lenders they will repay their loans. If they fail, lenders can cut future loans or freeze assets.

Lenders lack complete information about a borrower's financial situation making it hard to decide if they can repay.

The International Monetary Fund was established to manage global financial stability, especially after World War II.

Trade liberalization is good for a country's economy but creates winners and losers due to job shifts and competition.

International institutions like the WTO are important for global trade because they provide a forum for trade negotiations, settle disputes, and enforce trade rules.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a global financial institution that provides loans to countries facing economic difficulties. It sets conditions on loans to ensure a country can manage its finances properly.

The IMF's purpose is to help countries facing financial crises, like Greece during the 2008 financial crisis, by providing loans and setting guidelines for economic stabilization.

The IMF is often criticized for forcing countries to adopt austerity measures, like cutting public services, as a condition of receiving a loan. These measures can worsen living conditions for citizens.

The World Bank is an international financial institution that focuses on long-term development projects, such as building infrastructure, to help developing countries reduce poverty.

The World Bank collaborates with regional banks, like the African Development Bank, to implement development projects in specific regions.

Debt crises occur when countries struggle to repay their loans due to slow economic growth, leading to a cycle of borrowing and further debt.

The IMF's conditions for loans can lead to distributional conflicts. While some groups, like investors, benefit, others, like citizens, may face austerity measures and economic hardship.

A financial crisis in one country, like the 2008 US crisis, can have ripple effects on other countries due to interconnected global markets, causing a global economic downturn.

Portfolio investment involves investing in a company or country without having control over the management, such as buying shares or bonds.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) involves having control over business activities in a foreign country, such as building a factory or running a business.

Countries borrow money from other countries or international institutions to invest in their economy and generate economic growth.

Lenders, who provide loans to countries, expect to earn a higher return on their investment compared to investing in their own country.

The commitment problem in sovereign lending arises from the lack of trust between borrowers and lenders due to potential defaults and incomplete information about each other's intentions.

Multinational Corporations (MNCs) invest and operate in multiple countries, bringing jobs and investment, but are often criticized for exploiting workers, avoiding taxes, and having negative environmental impacts.

MNCs are criticized for engaging in outsourcing, which involves shifting jobs from developed countries to cheaper labor markets in developing countries, leading to job losses in the former.

Wealth in natural resources often leads to poverty. Governments become reliant on resource revenue, leading to lack of taxation, accountability, and corruption. This hinders economic diversification and development.

Policies that promote public goods, like education and infrastructure, are crucial for development.

Policies influenced by wealthy individuals or businesses that prioritize their own interests over the well-being of the majority.

The interconnected relationship between equality, democratic institutions, and economic development.

Trade patterns where developing countries primarily export raw materials, leading to lower prices in competitive markets.

International organization that sets trade rules, often perceived as favoring developed nations.

International financial institutions (IMF and World Bank) that provide loans to countries but often impose conditions that may harm development.

Economic strategy focused on replacing imported goods with domestically manufactured products.

Economic strategy focused on producing goods for export markets, often using policies like tax breaks and cheap loans.

A set of economic policies that emphasize free trade, privatization, fiscal discipline, and openness to foreign investment.

Analyzing development challenges by asking 'WHY' questions about factors like geography, policies, and institutions.

Using mnemonic devices (like acronyms) to remember complex topics, concepts, or lists.

Comparing and contrasting different approaches to development, like ISI and EOI, to understand their strengths and weaknesses.

Linking real-world examples (like countries or industries) to specific development concepts.

Understanding that development depends on a combination of geographical, domestic, institutional, and international factors.

Economic development is affected by a country's geographical location, including its proximity to trade routes, climate conditions, and historical colonial legacies.

Effective governance, strong institutions, and policies that prioritize public goods (like infrastructure and education) are essential for economic development.

The distribution of wealth and power within a country influences its economic growth. More equal societies tend to have democratic institutions and policies that promote development.

The influence of international factors, such as the interests of wealthy nations, can hinder development in poorer countries.

Landlocked countries face higher transportation costs and limited access to international markets, impeding their economic growth.

Tropical climates often present challenges to development, including higher disease rates, less fertile soils, and greater infrastructure maintenance needs.

Colonial legacies, such as arbitrary borders and disrupted ethnic unity, can create challenges for development.

Corruption, where leaders prioritize special interests over the public good, undermines institutions and slows economic progress.

Wealthy groups, such as landowners, may resist economic changes that threaten their power and wealth, hindering development.

The commitment problem in international lending arises because borrowers might not be able to repay loans, potentially leading to a reluctance by lenders to provide future funding.

International financial institutions, like the IMF and World Bank, can play a crucial role in providing financial assistance and supporting development projects.

The World Bank focuses on long-term development projects, primarily aimed at reducing poverty and promoting economic growth.

Developing countries often borrow foreign capital to achieve economic growth by accessing resources that are limited domestically.

A pattern where countries heavily dependent on exporting raw materials face economic challenges due to fluctuating prices, limited technological advancement, and potential corruption.

The tendency for the demand for basic necessities (food, housing) to decrease as income rises, leading to a shift in spending towards non-essentials.

The idea that geography plays a crucial role in shaping economic development, influencing trade, resource availability, and overall growth potential.

Corruption, lack of transparency, and political instability can hinder economic development by discouraging investment, undermining the rule of law, and creating an unfair playing field.

The unequal distribution of wealth and resources within a society, leading to disparities in income, access to education, and opportunities.

The influence of domestic elites and powerful groups on economic policies, potentially hindering development by favoring their own interests and creating obstacles for progress.

The process of increased interconnectedness among countries through trade, finance, and technology, impacting development through both opportunities and challenges.

The potential benefits and drawbacks of the globalization process for developing countries, including access to new markets, technology transfer, but also potential exploitation and dependency.

The ongoing struggle to achieve sustainable economic growth, improve living standards, and reduce poverty in less-developed countries, facing various challenges and seeking effective strategies.

International institutions like the IMF and WTO, while aiming to promote development, have faced criticism for potential bias towards developed countries, imposing conditions that may hinder developing nations' autonomy and growth.

Rights that everyone possesses simply by being human, regardless of nationality, race, gender, or other characteristics.

A document adopted by the United Nations in 1948, outlining fundamental human rights and freedoms.

A treaty that focuses on protecting civil and political rights, including freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.

A treaty that focuses on protecting economic, social, and cultural rights, including the rights to education, healthcare, and a decent living standard.

Actions taken by countries to address human rights abuses after periods of conflict or repression. These actions often focus on healing and reconciliation rather than just punishment.

The principle that allows victims of human rights abuses to take their case to international courts, bypassing their own governments.

An international court established to prosecute individuals for serious international crimes, such as war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.

A process where all UN member states are reviewed by the Human Rights Council to assess their human rights records.

The reason why some countries violate human rights due to a lack of resources to adequately protect and enforce those rights.

The reason why some countries violate human rights to maintain national security, often by using security concerns as justification for human rights abuses.

The reason why some countries violate human rights in order to stay in power or gain control, often through authoritarian tactics or suppression of dissent.

A situation where two or more human rights principles conflict, requiring weighing the importance of each right in a particular situation.

The ability of the ICC to deter some human rights abuses, particularly by states and rebel groups, by the threat of prosecution.

The potential downside of ICC intervention, where its involvement can prolong conflicts as leaders might continue fighting to avoid prosecution.

The ongoing development and implementation of human rights law as a system to protect and improve human rights globally.

Basic rights that belong to every person simply because they are human. They are not dependent on nationality or government, and every human is entitled to them, regardless of background.

A document created in 1948 by the UN to establish global human rights standards. It's the most authoritative document on human rights worldwide.

Two important treaties that came out of the UDHR. The ICCPR focuses on negative rights (freedom from interference) while the ICESCR focuses on positive rights (rights to certain things like healthcare, education).

States have different views on human rights, shaped by their political systems, cultures, and traditions. This can lead to disagreements and controversies. For example, there is debate about the use of torture in extreme cases, like terrorism.

Institutions shape economic policy and resource distribution. For example, equal wealth distribution (small-scale farming) in North America led to democratic institutions and rapid development, while wealth inequality (large plantations) in South America fostered undemocratic institutions and slower development.

Critics argue that international institutions like the IMF and WTO favor rich countries by protecting their trade interests and imposing policies that harm LDCs. For example, the WTO often ignores LDCs' calls for agricultural trade liberalization.

Import-Substitution Industrialization (ISI) began to lose support in the 1970s because ISI industries were inefficient and produced low-quality goods. Additionally, protected markets hurt farmers and led to trade imbalances and rising foreign debt.

Export-Oriented Industrialization (EOI) encouraged manufacturing for foreign markets through tax breaks, low-cost loans, and weak currencies. Countries like South Korea industrialized rapidly by exporting high-quality goods like steel and automobiles.

The Washington Consensus promoted market-oriented policies to integrate countries into the global economy. Two associated policies were trade liberalization (removal of trade barriers) and privatization of state-owned enterprises.

Engel's Law states that as incomes rise, people spend a smaller percentage on food. This means demand for agricultural products (main exports of LDCs) grows slower, disadvantaging poor countries in trade.

Political interests and corruption within a country can block economic development by prioritizing the interests of elite groups over public goods. For example, wealthy landowners in some LDCs oppose property rights for farmers to maintain their dominance.

Geography influences trade, agriculture, and disease prevalence. For example, landlocked countries face challenges in trade, while tropical countries in sub-Saharan Africa struggle more than temperate regions due to disease and poor soil. However, countries like Singapore overcame geographic challenges.

ISI focused on domestic markets, protected industries, and subsidies, while EOI focused on global markets, offered export incentives, and aimed to create competitive goods. EOI was more successful due to its focus on international competitiveness.

Colonialism shaped development challenges by extracting resources, neglecting infrastructure, and drawing arbitrary borders. Example: Post-colonial African nations faced conflict and economic dependency.

The Washington Consensus promoted policies like trade liberalization, privatization, and fiscal discipline. While it promoted growth in some cases, it also led to increased inequality and hurt domestic industries.

The WTO protects rich countries' agriculture through subsidies. Rich countries dominate decision-making in the IMF and World Bank, imposing harmful policies on LDCs, such as ignoring calls for agricultural trade liberalization.

North America had equal wealth distribution, leading to democratic institutions and economic progress. South America's unequal wealth fostered undemocratic institutions and slower progress.

Natural resource wealth can lead to corruption, weak accountability, and lack of diversification. Examples: Nigeria (oil) and Angola.

Globalization offers trade opportunities, foreign investment, and technology transfer. However, it also contributes to inequality, loss of local industries, and job displacement. Example: Winners (East Asia), losers (some African nations).

A situation where shared resources are overused and depleted because no one feels responsible for their preservation.

The right to be paid the same amount for the same work, regardless of gender, race, or other factors.

People who benefit from a public good without contributing to its protection.

These rights are linked to freedoms from interference by the government. They focus on what the government cannot do.

These rights require the government to actively take action to ensure their realization. They focus on what the government must do.

Countries that have historically contributed the most to climate change (e.g., US and Europe) face pressure to pay for clean-up efforts.

This International Bill of Rights document focuses on civil and political rights, such as freedom of speech and voting.

Developing nations arguing that richer countries should pay for environmental damage because they were the primary contributors.

The principle that those who cause pollution should bear the costs of cleaning it up.

This International Bill of Rights document focuses on economic, social, and cultural rights, such as the right to work and healthcare.

Acting to prevent potential harm even if there is no absolute proof of the danger.

States may violate human rights for a complex mix of reasons, including lack of capacity, defending national security, or preserving their own rule.

Balancing economic growth with environmental protection for sustained progress.

This principle emphasizes the right of states to govern themselves without undue interference from other countries.

An international agreement that aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, compared to pre-industrial levels.

These rights are fundamental and cannot be suspended under any circumstances, even during times of emergency.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) was established to prosecute individuals for serious crimes like war crimes and crimes against humanity.

The Montreal Protocol (1987) aimed to phase out ozone-depleting substances, leading to a significant recovery of the ozone layer.

The Kyoto Protocol (1997) was the first legally binding agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The process of adapting to the inevitable impacts of climate change (e.g., sea-level rise).

The process of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit global warming.

Truth and reconciliation commissions are a form of transitional justice that aims to uncover the truth about past injustices and promote reconciliation between victims and perpetrators.

The ICC’s involvement in conflicts can sometimes prolong them, as leaders may fear prosecution for war crimes and choose to continue fighting.

Financial support provided by wealthier countries to developing nations to assist them in their climate action efforts.

International organizations play a crucial role in managing the global environment by setting standards, verifying compliance, and fostering cooperation.

TANs used a mix of normative and economic pressure to challenge and eventually dismantle South Africa’s apartheid regime.