International Relations: Alliances and Security

A situation where there is no central authority like a government or police to enforce laws.

Agreements between states to cooperate militarily, often to deter attacks or achieve common goals.

Organizations aiming to ensure peace and security for all members, not just specific states.

When states ally to counter a perceived threat, aiming to balance the power and prevent domination by one side.

When weaker states join stronger powers to gain rewards, often by taking advantage of the stronger state's power.

Challenges faced by alliances, where members may not fully commit or act in their own interests, potentially undermining the alliance's effectiveness.

A situation where everyone benefits from peace, but some states don't contribute resources, relying on others to maintain peace.

The idea that peace is a shared good that benefits everyone, and everyone is responsible for maintaining it.

The ability of a country to produce a good or service using fewer resources than another country.

The ability of a country to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country. Focuses on what a country does best relative to its other options.

The resources used to produce goods and services, including land, labor, and capital.

A tax imposed on imported or exported goods. It increases the price of the good, making domestic alternatives more competitive.

A limit on the quantity of a specific good that can be imported into a country. This limits competition for domestic producers.

Financial assistance provided by the government to domestic industries to make them more competitive, often through subsidies or tax breaks.

A complete ban on the import or export of specific goods, often for political or security reasons.

A theory suggesting that countries will tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors of production that they possess in abundance. For example, labor-rich countries will export labor-intensive goods.

A situation where everyone benefits from a collective good (like peace), but individuals may be tempted to free-ride without contributing.

A situation in international politics where states balance their power to prevent any single state from becoming too dominant.

The ability of a country to attract investment, create jobs, and grow its economy.

An international organization that helps countries facing financial difficulties by providing loans and setting economic standards.

An international organization focused on long-term development projects, providing loans and support to countries for infrastructure and poverty reduction.

A type of foreign investment where investors have no control over the management of the investments, such as buying stocks or bonds in a foreign company.

A type of foreign investment where investors have full control over the management of investments, such as building a factory or setting up a business in a foreign country.

The situation where a country cannot repay its debts due to lack of economic growth or other factors, leading to potential financial instability.

The issue of unequal distribution of benefits and burdens from borrowing, where some citizens may benefit from investment while others may suffer from higher taxes or reduced public services.

The potential for financial crises in one country to spread globally, as interconnected economies can be affected by each other's problems.

The difficulty in guaranteeing repayment of sovereign debt due to potential changes in political conditions or the ability of a country to honor its commitments.

The lack of complete information about a borrower's true financial situation, potentially leading to risky lending decisions.

Large multinational corporations with operations in multiple countries, often facing criticism for their influence and impact on host economies.

Wealth in natural resources often leads to poverty due to government dependence on resource revenue, causing low taxes, corruption, and lack of economic diversification.

Policies that benefit public goods like education, infrastructure, and financial systems promote development.

Policies driven by corruption, special interests, and short-term political gain often lead to poverty.

Groups like wealthy landowners or businesses often oppose policies that benefit the poor, prioritizing their own interests.

Strong institutions, including those promoting equality and democracy, are essential for a country's sustainable development.

LDCs rely on exporting primary goods (raw materials) which face unstable prices in competitive markets.

The WTO's rules often favor rich countries, benefiting large firms and developed nations over LDCs.

The IMF and World Bank, controlled by developed nations, often impose loan conditions that can harm developing countries.

Replacing imports with domestic manufacturing by imposing high trade barriers, promoting state-run industries, and subsidizing local manufacturers.

Focusing on producing goods for export markets by offering tax breaks, cheap loans, and a weak currency to make exports competitive.

Countries that lack coastlines, making international trade expensive due to high transport costs.

A set of economic policies emphasizing trade liberalization, privatization, fiscal discipline, and openness to foreign investment.

Globalization, while promoting trade and investment, often creates winners and losers, with poorer countries often facing challenges.

Regions with hot climates and rainy tropical conditions often face challenges like poor soil quality and widespread diseases, hindering development.

The legacy of colonialism can lead to unstable borders and ethnic conflicts that slow down development.

Breaking down complex development issues into "why" questions to understand the underlying causes of poverty.

Using mnemonic devices like "W-I-D-P" (Wealth distribution → Institutions → Development policies) to remember key concepts.

Governments that effectively invest in infrastructure, education, and financial systems to promote economic growth.

Corruption occurs when government officials prioritize personal gain over the common good, hindering progress and development.

Comparing and contrasting different development strategies like ISI and EOI to highlight their key differences.

Groups with significant wealth, like landowners, might resist changes like industrialization that challenge their interests.

These are essential for economic development, promoting a level playing field and fostering growth.

Institutions can either promote or hinder development, depending on their fairness and inclusiveness.

When wealth is relatively evenly distributed, democratic institutions are more likely to arise, leading to policies that benefit everyone and foster economic development.

Unequal wealth distribution often leads to undemocratic systems that favor the wealthy, resulting in policies that slow down development for the majority.

The interests of rich countries might prioritize their own gains, potentially hindering the growth of developing nations.

International institutions like the WTO and IMF might have rules and policies that unintentionally favor developed countries and harm developing nations.

A situation where countries benefit more from cooperating on trade, but each faces incentives to act in its own self-interest, potentially leading to a less optimal outcome.

The belief that a country's abundant factor of production influences its trade preferences. A country rich in labor will favor free trade, while a land-rich country might prefer protection.

The potential for a borrower to default (not repay) on a loan, posing a risk for lenders.

An international organization established after World War II to provide financial support and promote global financial stability.

The benefits countries gain when they cooperate in trade, such as increased economic growth and access to new markets.

A policy that protects domestic industries from foreign competition by imposing restrictions on imports, such as tariffs, quotas, or subsidies.

When each country focuses on producing what they are best at, and then trades with other countries to obtain goods they don't produce as efficiently.

The belief that free trade ultimately benefits everyone, as countries specialize in what they do best and trade goods and services.

A situation where countries are better off cooperating (free trade) but have incentives to cheat (protectionism), leading to potential losses for both.

Consumers benefit from cheaper goods and access to wider variety of products.

Export-focused industries benefit from expanded markets and demand for their products.

Industries that rely on protection from imports may face competition and job losses.

Workers in uncompetitive sectors may experience job displacement as their industries decline.

Local industries that rely on protection from imports to survive and thrive.

Consumers face higher prices as protectionist policies increase the cost of imported goods.

Exporters may face retaliatory protectionist measures from other countries, limiting their access to foreign markets.

Basic rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of nationality, race, gender, or any other status.

A landmark document adopted by the UN in 1948, setting out universal human rights standards for all individuals.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, focusing on negative rights, like freedom from interference.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, focusing on positive rights, like access to healthcare and education.

Different countries have differing views on human rights due to their political systems, cultures, and traditions.

The process where institutions like government, laws, and social norms shape how resources and wealth are distributed within a society.

When wealth distribution is relatively equal (like in small-scale farming), it often leads to more democratic institutions and faster development.

The concept of having more wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, like in large plantation systems, often leads to less democratic institutions and slower development.

Criticisms argue that organizations like the IMF and WTO favor richer nations by protecting their trade interests and implementing policies that harm developing countries.

A strategy that encourages domestic industrial growth by protecting local industries through tariffs and subsidies. It aims to reduce reliance on imports.

Industries created under ISI often lacked efficiency, produced low-quality goods, and led to trade imbalances and foreign debt.

A strategy that encourages the production of goods for export, often through tax breaks, loans, and currency manipulation.

A set of market-oriented economic policies championed in the 1980s, promoting globalization and free trade, as well as privatization of state-owned companies.

Engel's Law states that as income increases, people spend a smaller proportion of their income on food.

Engel's Law can disadvantage developing countries in trade because the demand for agriculture (their major export) grows more slowly than the demand for other goods.

Rights that everyone has simply because they are human. They are universal because they apply to all people, regardless of race, religion, gender, nationality, or any other status.

The international standard for human rights, outlining fundamental rights and freedoms for all individuals. It emphasizes respect for dignity and inherent worth.

A treaty focusing on civil and political rights, safeguarding freedoms like speech, assembly, religion, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.

A treaty focusing on economic, social, and cultural rights, ensuring access to essential things like education, healthcare, and a decent living standard.

The practice of states violating human rights due to a lack of capacity or resources to effectively protect them.

States may violate human rights for reasons related to national security, such as controlling information or suppressing dissent in the name of protecting the country.

States might violate human rights to maintain or consolidate their power, often seen in authoritarian regimes where dissent is harshly suppressed.

Practices aimed at healing and addressing injustices after human rights abuses, often involving truth commissions, reparations, and reconciliation efforts.

The ability of individuals to directly petition international courts or bodies if their human rights have been violated, bypassing their own government.

A principle allowing international courts to prosecute individuals for serious human rights violations like genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, regardless of where they occurred or the nationality of the perpetrator.

An international court established to try individuals for serious crimes, like war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.

A periodic review process conducted by the UN Human Rights Council, where all member states are examined on their human rights performance.

The ICC has achieved some success in deterring abuses and reducing violence, but its involvement can also prolong conflicts as leaders may resist prosecution.

The idea that human rights law is constantly evolving and adapting to new challenges and circumstances, while recognizing its limitations and areas for improvement.

While there are challenges, the core principles and institutions of human rights law provide a framework for promoting and protecting human rights globally.

The concept that a country's geographic features, such as location, climate, and resources, significantly influence its economic development.

A set of economic policies, often associated with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, that emphasize privatization, deregulation, and fiscal conservatism.

As income increases, people spend a decreasing proportion of their income on food and an increasing proportion on other goods and services.

Political interests, corruption, and lack of accountability can hinder economic development by diverting resources away from productive investments, discouraging foreign investment, and creating an unfavorable business climate.

The unequal distribution of wealth and power within a society, where a small elite controls most resources and opportunities, hindering overall economic development.

Countries with larger plantations and more diverse agricultural output, combined with a developed transportation and infrastructure system, can benefit from increased trade and production efficiency.

North America was able to develop faster due to factors like the relatively limited impact of colonialism, which allowed for more democratic governance structures and greater societal control.

The process of connecting economies globally through trade, investment, and information exchange.

The increasing interconnectedness of economies through trade, investment, and information exchange. It can have both positive and negative consequences for developing countries, impacting economic growth, wages, and environmental sustainability.

The right to receive pay that is equal to the pay of someone else doing the same job, regardless of gender, race, or other factors.

Rights that are often referred to as economic, social, and cultural rights. These rights focus on things like the right to work, education, healthcare, and social security.

This refers to the fundamental rights that are considered essential for a dignified life and cannot be taken away, even in times of emergency.

A set of three important documents that form the foundation of international human rights law: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

A situation where states may violate human rights to protect their own power or to maintain control over their territory.

This principle of international law emphasizes that states should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states.

This international court was created to investigate and prosecute individuals responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.

The Human Rights Council conducts a periodic review of each state's human rights practices to assess their progress and identify areas of concern.

The use of truth commissions as a form of transitional justice is considered innovative because it prioritizes reconciliation and accountability through public hearings, testimonies, and recommendations for addressing past injustices.

Transnational Advocacy Networks (TANs) played an instrumental role in pressuring the South African government to end apartheid through public campaigns, boycotts, and diplomatic pressure.

The ICESCR focuses on rights that are often referred to as:

The ICC was established to prosecute individuals for:

Which is a reason why states might violate human rights?

The challenge of getting countries to work together to fix environmental problems, faced with issues like individual rewards, limited resources, and trust.

A shared, limited resource like fish in the ocean, where overuse can deplete it. It presents a challenge of managing shared resources.

Benefitting from a public good without contributing to its upkeep, like enjoying clean air but not taking action to reduce pollution.

A principle stating that those who pollute should bear the costs of cleaning up the mess they've created.

Acting to prevent potential harm to the environment, even if there's no concrete proof of the danger yet. It's about being cautious.

Balancing economic growth with environmental protection, ensuring that economic progress doesn't come at the expense of future generations.

A major international agreement aiming to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, ideally 1.5 degrees Celsius, above pre-industrial levels. It involves commitments to reduce emissions, adapt to climate impacts, and provide financial support.

A major environmental issue caused by increased human activity, leading to higher global temperatures and various consequences, including rising sea levels and extreme weather events.

A major environmental issue caused by the depletion of the ozone layer, which protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Primarily caused by human-made chemicals.

The loss of natural habitats, like forests, grasslands, and wetlands, due to human activities, leading to biodiversity loss and impacting ecosystems.

The degradation of land quality due to human activities like overgrazing, deforestation, and unsustainable farming practices, resulting in lower productivity and soil erosion.

The process where fertile land turns into desert due to factors like climate change, overgrazing, and deforestation, causing desertification.

The loss of variety in living organisms on Earth, both in species and ecosystems, due to human impacts like habitat destruction and climate change.

The contamination of water sources with harmful pollutants, affecting human health and aquatic ecosystems. It can come from industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage.

The depletion of water resources, both surface and groundwater, due to over-extraction for human use, often surpassing natural replenishment rates.