Inorganic Compounds & Macro-Minerals

Inorganic Compounds

• Inorganic compounds are macro-minerals

Macro-Minerals and Their Functions & Pathologies

• Calcium (Ca):

• Plays a key role in bone and teeth mineralization

• Participates in physiological processes such as muscle contraction and pH maintenance

• Serves as a cofactor for several enzymes

• Hypercalcemia affects the cardiovascular, renal, neuromuscular, and bone systems

• Hypocalcemia affects bone mineralization, reduces insulin secretion, and reduces glucose utilization

• Sodium (Na):

  • Main cation of the extracellular fluid
  • Important functions in transporting nutrients, nerve impulse transmission, and osmotic regulation

• Potassium (K):

  • Functions as the main cation of the intracellular fluid
  • Maintains intracellular osmolarity, which is crucial for electrochemical potential
  • Arrhythmias arise due to alterations in extracellular potassium concentration
  • Hyperkalemia is linked to insulin deficiency
  • Hypokalemia is linked to hypoinsulinemia

• Magnesium (Mg):

  • About 50% is stored in bone tissue, 48% in the intracellular fluid, and 1% in the blood
  • Functions as a cofactor for numerous enzymes
  • Stabilizes the ATP molecule, making it biologically active
  • Low MgO levels increase cholesterol and triacylglycerols in plasma
  • Increased risk of metabolic syndrome.

• Phosphorus (P):

  • Acts as the phosphate pH buffering system
  • Componen of the bone mineral
  • Integral part of various biomolecules such as ATP, nucleic acids, and phospholipids
  • Hyperphosphatemia is a risk factor for cardiovascular conditions

Trace Minerals and Their Functions & Pathologies

• Iron (Fe):

  • Found in two forms: ferrous ion (Fe2+) and ferric ion (Fe3+)
  • Binds to proteins in the body (heme group)
  • 2/3 of Fe is in hemoglobin, 15% stored as ferritin
    • Anemia occurs due to iron deficiency
    • Excess iron leads to hemochromatosis (iron accumulation)
    • High iron associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes

• Zinc (Zn):

  • Serves as a cofactor for 10% of proteins
  • Synthesis of proteins (collagen) and nucleic acids
  • Zinc deficiency links to glucose intolerance, diabetes, atherosclerosis & decreased infection resistance

• Silicon (Si):

  • Acts as an intracellular signal
  • Helps prevent osteoporosis and myocardial infarction.
  • Stimulates collagen synthesis

• Copper (Cu):

  • Copper has a cofactor for various enzymes
  • Involved in redox reactions like oxidative phosphorylation
  • Is essential for immunity, combating oxidative stress & connective tissue forming
  • Wilson's disease results from copper accumulation
  • Elevated levels linked to Alzheimer's disease
  • Altered levels affect lipid metabolism

• Iodine (I):

  • Component of thyroid hormones.
    • Deficiency causes goiter, hypothyroidism, cretinism, and abortion

Toxic Elements

• Aluminum (Al), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd) are toxic.

Dose-Response Relationship

• Deficiency symptoms, optimal state of health, excess effects, physiological response

Chemical Functions and Functional Groups

• Alcohol:
• Functional group: Hydroxyl (-OH)
• Phenol:
  • Functional group: Hydroxyl (-OH)
• Ether:
  • Functional group: -O- (oxygen)
  • Symmetric ether: R-O-R
  • Asymmetric ether: R-O-R'
• Aldehydes and Ketones:
  • Functional group: Carbonyl
  • Ketone: -C=O
  • Aldehyde: -C=OH
• Carboxylic Acid:
  • Functional group: Carboxyl
  • -COOH or -CO2H
• Ester:
  • From carboxylic acid and alcohol
• Amines:
  • Amine functional group
• Amides:
  • Amine group substitutes a hydroxyl acid

Aliphatic and Aromatic Compounds

• Aliphatic: Reacts like alkane, alkene, alkyne, or derivatives
• Aromatic: Compounds w/ low hydrogen/carbon ratio, often perfumed

Hydrocarbons

• Alkanes: Saturated with single bonds
• Alkenes: Unsaturated with one or more double bonds
• Alkynes: Unsaturated with one or more triple bonds

Alkyl Groups

• Originates from removing H from an alkane
• Methyl (-CH3)
• Ethyl (-CH3CH2)
• Propyl (-CH3CH2CH2)

Halides

• Compound where H atom is replaced by halogen atom

Isomerism

• Area of chemistry related to 3D molecular structure

Representation Formulas

• Fischer Projections
• Haworth Projections

Isomers

• Physical Isomers w/ same molecular formula but different stereochemical formula
• Constitutional Isomers differe in nature
  • Functional: ether vs alcohol
  • Positional: location of bonds

Stereoisomers

• Arrangement of atoms in space
  • Enantiomers: Non-superimposable mirror image

Importance of Atom Positions

• Interacting w/ enzymes, binding to receptors, & cellular transport

Cis and Trans Ligands

• Example: Fatty acids

Acid-Base Chemistry

• Acid: Donates protons
• Base: Accepts Protons
• Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases involving donating or receiving protons
• Lewis acids/bases capture a pair of electrons
• It is temporary when separated, electrons return

Substance Types

• Protofilic: Accept protons
• Protogenic: Release protons
• Aprotic: Do not accept or release protons
• Amphoteric/Amphiprotic: Simultaneously accept and release

pH Scale

• pH= -log[H+]
• pH is 7.4 in body [7.35, 7.45]
• Acidity and alkalinity affect how iões bind

Chemical Alterations in Foods and Food Matrix

• Foods classified as intact tissues, destroyed tissues, non-cellular systems
• Genetic diversity addresses fortification and resistance needs

Effects of Farming Practices

• Environmental factors like light, temp, rain affect plant nutrition.

Food Processing Effects

• Nutrient retention relies on processing and storage
• Preserve, enhance palatability, and prepare them

Food Preservation

• Basic principles, water removal, heat treatment, low-temp treatment, etc

Nutrient Bioavailability

• Rate and extent a substance is absorbed and available

Processing Impacts

Relatively stable proteins, minerais, and niacin, whereas light harms vitamin A (retinol)

• Nutrients degraded sensorially are riboflavin B2, thiamin B1 and pyridoxine B6
• Nutrients that most quickly lower in quality are ascorbic and folate

Food Matrix

• Nutrients are made up of a starch storage

Biochemical Transportation

• Biological membranes permeable -Low weight travels thru membranes -High weight travels thru proteins

Protein transporters

• Proteins can alternate w/ changes in structure to release at active sites
• Can open/close channels with hydrophilic membrane
• Proteins and channels can carry 1 solute, or 2 in opposite directions

Enzimes

• Enzymes transport protiens with help of ATP
• Some transfer glucose for glycolysis

Intercelluar signaling

• The cells can communicate using molecules
• Can be paracrine, synpatic or endocrine

Receptors

• Have a signal generator linked

Isometria

• Chemical part that studies 3D structure

Gibbs Free Energ

• Maximum reaction obtainable under constant temp and constant
• Gibbs can be negative or positive