Inhaled Steroids and Combinations Overview

Questions and Answers

What is the mechanism of action of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS)?

Stimulation of beta-2 adrenergic receptors

Reduction of inflammation by inhibiting leukocyte infiltration (correct)

Inhibition of histamine release from mast cells

Inhibition of phosphodiesterase

Which of the following is a contraindication for the use of systemic glucocorticoids?

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Pneumonia

Severe asthma exacerbation

Active fungal infection (correct)

What is the major side effect associated with the use of beta-2 agonists?

Cough

Dizziness

Hypoglycemia

Cardiac arrhythmias (correct)

Which of the following medications is a leukotriene modifier?

Montelukast Signup and view all the answers

What is a common drug interaction with thiazolidinediones?

Enhanced anticoagulation with warfarin Signup and view all the answers

Which class of drugs does empagliflozin belong to?

SGLT-2 Inhibitors Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary action of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors?

Decreasing cholesterol synthesis Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is a selective 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used for chemotherapy-induced nausea?

Ondansetron Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential side effect of loop diuretics?

Dehydration Signup and view all the answers

Which therapeutic class do glimepiride and glipizide belong to?

Sulfonylureas Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary route of administration for inhaled corticosteroids?

Inhalation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following combinations represents a common ICS/LABA medication?

Budesonide/formoterol Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely side effect of systemic glucocorticoid therapy?

Weight gain Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is classified as a SGLT-2 inhibitor?

Dapagliflozin Signup and view all the answers

Which side effect is commonly associated with the use of beta-1 selective blockers?

Bradycardia Signup and view all the answers

What condition is phenylephrine primarily indicated for?

Nasal congestion Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism does the drug montelukast act upon?

Leukotriene receptor antagonism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of thiazide diuretics?

Effective in treating hypertension Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a known major drug interaction with oral anticoagulants like warfarin?

Amiodarone Signup and view all the answers

What is a common use for xanthine derivatives in therapy?

Bronchodilation Signup and view all the answers

What is a common indication for the use of inhaled corticosteroids?

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is typically used as a rescue inhaler?

Albuterol Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable side effect associated with PDE4 inhibitors?

Diarrhea Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a contraindication for the use of xanthine derivatives?

Coronary artery disease Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors?

Prolong the action of GLP-1 Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is an H2 receptor blocker used for reducing gastric acid secretion?

Ranitidine Signup and view all the answers

What is a major drug interaction with beta-2 agonists?

Increased risk of hypokalemia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential side effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)?

Weight gain Signup and view all the answers

What therapeutic use do thiazide diuretics primarily serve?

Management of hypertension Signup and view all the answers

What is a common side effect associated with the use of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors?

Gastrointestinal upset Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is known for its dual action as both a beta-1 and beta-2 blocker?

Propranolol Signup and view all the answers

What is a key contraindication for the use of thiazide diuretics?

Severe renal impairment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of SGLT-2 inhibitors?

Inhibition of glucose reabsorption in the kidney Signup and view all the answers

Which side effect is most commonly associated with long-term use of systemic glucocorticoids?

Osteoporosis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common indication for the use of H2 receptor blockers?

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) Signup and view all the answers

What is a common adverse effect associated with the use of statins?

Muscle pain Signup and view all the answers

What is a major drug interaction concern for patients taking anticoagulants like warfarin?

Risk of bleeding Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary therapeutic use of sildenafil?

Erectile dysfunction Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is typically used as an osmotic laxative?

Lactulose Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant indication for the use of long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMAs)?

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Signup and view all the answers

What is a key side effect associated with the use of thiazolidinediones?

Weight gain Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is an example of a rapid-acting beta-agonist (SABA)?

Albuterol Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable contraindication for the use of potassium-sparing diuretics?

Hyperkalemia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications acts as a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonist?

Exenatide Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of xanthine derivatives such as theophylline?

Bronchodilation Signup and view all the answers

What is a common use for leukotriene modifiers like montelukast?

Asthma control Signup and view all the answers

What is a major drug interaction concern when using selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)?

MAO inhibitors Signup and view all the answers

Which class of drug is commonly prescribed for the management of chronic heart failure?

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors Signup and view all the answers

Which type of medication is typically used to prevent asthma attacks but does not provide immediate relief?

ICS Signup and view all the answers

What is a common route of administration for long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMAs)?

Inhalation Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is primarily indicated for treating hypertension and heart failure?

Thiazide diuretics Signup and view all the answers

What potential side effect is commonly associated with the use of systemic glucocorticoids?

Increased appetite Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is known for its role in managing type 2 diabetes by increasing insulin sensitivity?

Thiazolidinediones Signup and view all the answers

Which medication class is contraindicated in patients with a history of angioedema?

ACE inhibitors Signup and view all the answers

When should systemic glucocorticoids be used with caution?

In patients with diabetes Signup and view all the answers

What is a major drug interaction concern for HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors?

Macrolide antibiotics Signup and view all the answers

Which class of drugs does empagliflozin belong to?

SGLT-2 inhibitors Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is used primarily for the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with a dual mechanism?

Breztri Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is most commonly used as a long-acting beta-agonist (LABA)?

Formoterol Signup and view all the answers

What is a common side effect of thiazolidinediones?

Weight gain Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is classified as a direct thrombin inhibitor?

Dabigatran Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary therapeutic use of NSAIDs?

Pain relief and anti-inflammation Signup and view all the answers

Which type of drug is commonly prescribed to manage type 2 diabetes and enhances insulin sensitivity?

Biguanides Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable contraindication for the use of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs)?

Renal artery stenosis Signup and view all the answers

Which medication acts as a selective 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used to prevent nausea?

Ondansetron Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant side effect associated with the use of loop diuretics?

Ototoxicity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following therapies is used primarily for smoking cessation?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What class of medication is most commonly prescribed for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?

Long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMAs) Signup and view all the answers

What is a common side effect of inhaled corticosteroids?

Hoarseness Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is classified as a long-acting beta agonist (LABA)?

Salmeterol Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary indication for leukotriene modifiers?

Asthma Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is classified as an H2 receptor blocker?

Ranitidine Signup and view all the answers

What is a common side effect associated with thiazolidinediones?

Edema Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following drugs is a direct thrombin inhibitor?

Dabigatran Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant side effect of PDE4 inhibitors?

Nausea Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is commonly used as a systemic glucocorticoid?

Prednisone Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of SGLT-2 inhibitors?

Promote urinary glucose excretion Signup and view all the answers

Which class of drugs does atorvastatin belong to?

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is primarily indicated for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?

Salmeterol Signup and view all the answers

What is a common side effect of loop diuretics?

Electrolyte imbalances Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of SGLT-2 inhibitors?

Decreased renal glucose reabsorption Signup and view all the answers

What is a major side effect associated with glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists?

Pancreatitis Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is classified as an anticholinergic agent used for asthma management?

Ipratropium Signup and view all the answers

Which class of medications is commonly associated with the risk of developing rhabdomyolysis?

Statins Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of H2 receptor blockers?

Decrease gastric acid secretion Signup and view all the answers

What is a contraindication for using potassium-sparing diuretics?

Hyperkalemia Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is primarily used for managing hyperlipidemia as an HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is a common use for Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors?

Lowering blood sugar in Type 2 Diabetes Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is often used to prevent chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations?

Tiotropium Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable side effect associated with thiazide diuretics?

Hypokalemia Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary therapeutic use of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors?

Reducing serum cholesterol levels Signup and view all the answers

Which class of drug is known for its effects on reducing gastric acid secretion?

H2 Receptor Blockers Signup and view all the answers

Which medication serves as a selective 5-HT3 receptor antagonist that is commonly used to prevent nausea?

Ondansetron Signup and view all the answers

What condition is commonly treated with loop diuretics?

Heart failure Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is an example of a potassium-sparing diuretic?

Spironolactone Signup and view all the answers

What is a common side effect of beta-1 selective blockers?

Bradycardia Signup and view all the answers

Which class of medications is primarily indicated for the treatment of asthma symptoms?

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Inhaled Steroids

Mechanism of action: Reduce inflammation by suppressing immune response in the lungs.
Common brand names: Flovent, Pulmicort, Qvar (generic names: fluticasone, budesonide, beclomethasone).
Indications: Asthma, COPD, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Inhalation (MDI, DPI).
Side effects: Oral thrush, hoarseness, cough.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: CYP3A4 inhibitors can increase steroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Mechanism: Combines anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator effects.
Common brand names: Advair, Breo, Symbicort (generic names: fluticasone/salmeterol, fluticasone/vilanterol, budesonide/formoterol).
Indications: Persistent asthma, COPD.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Increased risk of pneumonia, heart palpitations.
Contraindications: Asthma without a long-acting beta-agonist.
Major drug interactions: Non-selective beta-blockers may reduce effectiveness.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists)

Mechanism: Quick bronchodilation by stimulating beta-2 receptors.
Common brand names: Albuterol, Levalbuterol.
Indications: Acute asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Tremors, tachycardia.
Contraindications: Severe hypersensitivity.
Major drug interactions: Other sympathomimetics can increase side effects.

SAMA (Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Block acetylcholine receptors, leading to bronchodilation.
Common brand names: Atrovent (generic: ipratropium).
Indications: COPD, asthma exacerbations.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, dizziness.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

LAMA (Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Similar to SAMA but with prolonged action.
Common brand names: Spiriva (generic: tiotropium), Incruse (umeclidinium).
Indications: COPD, chronic asthma.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, constipation.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine or derivatives.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Mechanism: Inhibit leukotriene synthesis or receptor binding, reducing inflammation.
Common brand names: Singulair (generic: montelukast).
Indications: Asthma, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Mood changes, liver enzyme elevation.
Contraindications: Severe allergy to components.
Major drug interactions: Prednisone can reduce therapeutic effects.

PDE4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit phosphodiesterase 4, decreasing inflammation.
Common brand name: Daliresp (generic: roflumilast).
Indications: COPD (to reduce flare-ups).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, weight loss.
Contraindications: Moderate to severe liver impairment.
Major drug interactions: Theophylline may increase side effects.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects.
Common brand names: Prednisone, dexamethasone.
Indications: Severe asthma exacerbation, inflammatory diseases.
Route: Oral, injection.
Side effects: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes exacerbation.
Contraindications: Systemic fungal infections.
Major drug interactions: NSAIDs increase risk of GI bleeding.

Xanthine Derivatives

Mechanism: Bronchodilation by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and increasing cAMP.
Common brand name: Theophylline.
Indications: COPD, asthma.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Nausea, tachycardia, arrhythmias.
Contraindications: Active peptic ulcer disease.
Major drug interactions: CYP1A2 inhibitors can increase levels.

Thyroid Hormones

Mechanism: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Common brand names: Synthroid (generic: levothyroxine).
Indications: Hypothyroidism.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Hyperthyroidism if overdosage.
Contraindications: Untreated adrenal insufficiency.
Major drug interactions: Calcium and iron can decrease absorption.

H1 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit effects of histamine, reducing allergy symptoms.
Common brand names: Claritin (generic: loratadine), Benadryl (diphenhydramine).
Indications: Allergic rhinitis, insomnia (first-gen).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Drowsiness (first-gen), dry mouth.
Contraindications: Caution in asthma (first-gen).
Major drug interactions: Alcohol may increase sedation.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit gastric acid secretion via H2 receptors.
Common brand names: Zantac (ranitidine), Pepcid (famotidine).
Indications: GERD, ulcers.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, dizziness.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment (dose adjustment required).
Major drug interactions: Antacids may decrease absorption.

PSI (Proton Pump Inhibitors)

Mechanism: Block gastric acid secretion, promoting healing of ulcers.
Common brand names: Nexium (esomeprazole), Prilosec (omeprazole).
Indications: GERD, peptic ulcer disease.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Increased risk of C. difficile infection, magnesium deficiency.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Clopidogrel may be affected by PPIs.

Osmotic Laxatives

Mechanism: Draw water into the intestines, increasing stool softness.
Common brand names: Miralax (polyethylene glycol), Sorbitol.
Indications: Constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Bloating, electrolytic imbalances.
Contraindications: Bowel obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Reduced absorption of other oral medications.

Stool Softeners

Mechanism: Increase water absorption in stool, making it easier to pass.
Common brand name: Colace (docusate sodium).
Indications: Prevent constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Abdominal cramping.
Contraindications: Intestinal obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Increased absorption of certain drugs.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Mechanism: Block serotonin receptors, preventing nausea and vomiting.
Common brand names: Zofran (ondansetron).
Indications: Chemotherapy-induced nausea, post-operative nausea.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, constipation.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Apomorphine can cause severe hypotension.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Mechanism: Stimulates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP and promoting relaxation.
Common brand name: Linaclotide.
Indications: Chronic constipation, IBS.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, abdominal pain.
Contraindications: Known or suspected GI obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Antacids can affect absorption.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, promoting glucose excretion.
Common brand names: Farxiga (dapagliflozin), Jardiance (empagliflozin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Urinary tract infections, genital fungal infections.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.
Major drug interactions: Diuretics may increase risk of dehydration.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, prolonging incretin levels to lower blood sugar.
Common brand names: Januvia (sitagliptin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Pancreatitis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Contraindications: History of pancreatitis.
Major drug interactions: Medications that affect renal function if administered together.

GLP-1 Agonists

Mechanism: Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon.
Common brand names: Trulicity (dulaglutide), Victoza (liraglutide).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes, obesity.
Route: Subcutaneous injection.
Side effects: Nausea, vomiting.
Contraindications: Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Major drug interactions: Oral medications may have reduced absorption.

Thiazolidinediones

Mechanism: Improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.
Common brand names: Actos (pioglitazone).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Weight gain,

Inhaled Steroids

Mechanism of action: Reduce inflammation by suppressing immune response in the lungs.
Common brand names: Flovent, Pulmicort, Qvar (generic names: fluticasone, budesonide, beclomethasone).
Indications: Asthma, COPD, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Inhalation (MDI, DPI).
Side effects: Oral thrush, hoarseness, cough.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: CYP3A4 inhibitors can increase steroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Mechanism: Combines anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator effects.
Common brand names: Advair, Breo, Symbicort (generic names: fluticasone/salmeterol, fluticasone/vilanterol, budesonide/formoterol).
Indications: Persistent asthma, COPD.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Increased risk of pneumonia, heart palpitations.
Contraindications: Asthma without a long-acting beta-agonist.
Major drug interactions: Non-selective beta-blockers may reduce effectiveness.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists)

Mechanism: Quick bronchodilation by stimulating beta-2 receptors.
Common brand names: Albuterol, Levalbuterol.
Indications: Acute asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Tremors, tachycardia.
Contraindications: Severe hypersensitivity.
Major drug interactions: Other sympathomimetics can increase side effects.

SAMA (Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Block acetylcholine receptors, leading to bronchodilation.
Common brand names: Atrovent (generic: ipratropium).
Indications: COPD, asthma exacerbations.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, dizziness.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

LAMA (Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Similar to SAMA but with prolonged action.
Common brand names: Spiriva (generic: tiotropium), Incruse (umeclidinium).
Indications: COPD, chronic asthma.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, constipation.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine or derivatives.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Mechanism: Inhibit leukotriene synthesis or receptor binding, reducing inflammation.
Common brand names: Singulair (generic: montelukast).
Indications: Asthma, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Mood changes, liver enzyme elevation.
Contraindications: Severe allergy to components.
Major drug interactions: Prednisone can reduce therapeutic effects.

PDE4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit phosphodiesterase 4, decreasing inflammation.
Common brand name: Daliresp (generic: roflumilast).
Indications: COPD (to reduce flare-ups).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, weight loss.
Contraindications: Moderate to severe liver impairment.
Major drug interactions: Theophylline may increase side effects.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects.
Common brand names: Prednisone, dexamethasone.
Indications: Severe asthma exacerbation, inflammatory diseases.
Route: Oral, injection.
Side effects: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes exacerbation.
Contraindications: Systemic fungal infections.
Major drug interactions: NSAIDs increase risk of GI bleeding.

Xanthine Derivatives

Mechanism: Bronchodilation by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and increasing cAMP.
Common brand name: Theophylline.
Indications: COPD, asthma.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Nausea, tachycardia, arrhythmias.
Contraindications: Active peptic ulcer disease.
Major drug interactions: CYP1A2 inhibitors can increase levels.

Thyroid Hormones

Mechanism: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Common brand names: Synthroid (generic: levothyroxine).
Indications: Hypothyroidism.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Hyperthyroidism if overdosage.
Contraindications: Untreated adrenal insufficiency.
Major drug interactions: Calcium and iron can decrease absorption.

H1 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit effects of histamine, reducing allergy symptoms.
Common brand names: Claritin (generic: loratadine), Benadryl (diphenhydramine).
Indications: Allergic rhinitis, insomnia (first-gen).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Drowsiness (first-gen), dry mouth.
Contraindications: Caution in asthma (first-gen).
Major drug interactions: Alcohol may increase sedation.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit gastric acid secretion via H2 receptors.
Common brand names: Zantac (ranitidine), Pepcid (famotidine).
Indications: GERD, ulcers.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, dizziness.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment (dose adjustment required).
Major drug interactions: Antacids may decrease absorption.

PSI (Proton Pump Inhibitors)

Mechanism: Block gastric acid secretion, promoting healing of ulcers.
Common brand names: Nexium (esomeprazole), Prilosec (omeprazole).
Indications: GERD, peptic ulcer disease.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Increased risk of C. difficile infection, magnesium deficiency.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Clopidogrel may be affected by PPIs.

Osmotic Laxatives

Mechanism: Draw water into the intestines, increasing stool softness.
Common brand names: Miralax (polyethylene glycol), Sorbitol.
Indications: Constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Bloating, electrolytic imbalances.
Contraindications: Bowel obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Reduced absorption of other oral medications.

Stool Softeners

Mechanism: Increase water absorption in stool, making it easier to pass.
Common brand name: Colace (docusate sodium).
Indications: Prevent constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Abdominal cramping.
Contraindications: Intestinal obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Increased absorption of certain drugs.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Mechanism: Block serotonin receptors, preventing nausea and vomiting.
Common brand names: Zofran (ondansetron).
Indications: Chemotherapy-induced nausea, post-operative nausea.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, constipation.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Apomorphine can cause severe hypotension.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Mechanism: Stimulates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP and promoting relaxation.
Common brand name: Linaclotide.
Indications: Chronic constipation, IBS.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, abdominal pain.
Contraindications: Known or suspected GI obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Antacids can affect absorption.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, promoting glucose excretion.
Common brand names: Farxiga (dapagliflozin), Jardiance (empagliflozin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Urinary tract infections, genital fungal infections.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.
Major drug interactions: Diuretics may increase risk of dehydration.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, prolonging incretin levels to lower blood sugar.
Common brand names: Januvia (sitagliptin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Pancreatitis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Contraindications: History of pancreatitis.
Major drug interactions: Medications that affect renal function if administered together.

GLP-1 Agonists

Mechanism: Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon.
Common brand names: Trulicity (dulaglutide), Victoza (liraglutide).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes, obesity.
Route: Subcutaneous injection.
Side effects: Nausea, vomiting.
Contraindications: Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Major drug interactions: Oral medications may have reduced absorption.

Thiazolidinediones

Mechanism: Improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.
Common brand names: Actos (pioglitazone).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Weight gain,

Inhaled Steroids

Mechanism of action: Reduce inflammation by suppressing immune response in the lungs.
Common brand names: Flovent, Pulmicort, Qvar (generic names: fluticasone, budesonide, beclomethasone).
Indications: Asthma, COPD, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Inhalation (MDI, DPI).
Side effects: Oral thrush, hoarseness, cough.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: CYP3A4 inhibitors can increase steroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Mechanism: Combines anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator effects.
Common brand names: Advair, Breo, Symbicort (generic names: fluticasone/salmeterol, fluticasone/vilanterol, budesonide/formoterol).
Indications: Persistent asthma, COPD.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Increased risk of pneumonia, heart palpitations.
Contraindications: Asthma without a long-acting beta-agonist.
Major drug interactions: Non-selective beta-blockers may reduce effectiveness.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists)

Mechanism: Quick bronchodilation by stimulating beta-2 receptors.
Common brand names: Albuterol, Levalbuterol.
Indications: Acute asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Tremors, tachycardia.
Contraindications: Severe hypersensitivity.
Major drug interactions: Other sympathomimetics can increase side effects.

SAMA (Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Block acetylcholine receptors, leading to bronchodilation.
Common brand names: Atrovent (generic: ipratropium).
Indications: COPD, asthma exacerbations.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, dizziness.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

LAMA (Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Similar to SAMA but with prolonged action.
Common brand names: Spiriva (generic: tiotropium), Incruse (umeclidinium).
Indications: COPD, chronic asthma.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, constipation.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine or derivatives.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Mechanism: Inhibit leukotriene synthesis or receptor binding, reducing inflammation.
Common brand names: Singulair (generic: montelukast).
Indications: Asthma, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Mood changes, liver enzyme elevation.
Contraindications: Severe allergy to components.
Major drug interactions: Prednisone can reduce therapeutic effects.

PDE4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit phosphodiesterase 4, decreasing inflammation.
Common brand name: Daliresp (generic: roflumilast).
Indications: COPD (to reduce flare-ups).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, weight loss.
Contraindications: Moderate to severe liver impairment.
Major drug interactions: Theophylline may increase side effects.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects.
Common brand names: Prednisone, dexamethasone.
Indications: Severe asthma exacerbation, inflammatory diseases.
Route: Oral, injection.
Side effects: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes exacerbation.
Contraindications: Systemic fungal infections.
Major drug interactions: NSAIDs increase risk of GI bleeding.

Xanthine Derivatives

Mechanism: Bronchodilation by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and increasing cAMP.
Common brand name: Theophylline.
Indications: COPD, asthma.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Nausea, tachycardia, arrhythmias.
Contraindications: Active peptic ulcer disease.
Major drug interactions: CYP1A2 inhibitors can increase levels.

Thyroid Hormones

Mechanism: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Common brand names: Synthroid (generic: levothyroxine).
Indications: Hypothyroidism.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Hyperthyroidism if overdosage.
Contraindications: Untreated adrenal insufficiency.
Major drug interactions: Calcium and iron can decrease absorption.

H1 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit effects of histamine, reducing allergy symptoms.
Common brand names: Claritin (generic: loratadine), Benadryl (diphenhydramine).
Indications: Allergic rhinitis, insomnia (first-gen).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Drowsiness (first-gen), dry mouth.
Contraindications: Caution in asthma (first-gen).
Major drug interactions: Alcohol may increase sedation.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit gastric acid secretion via H2 receptors.
Common brand names: Zantac (ranitidine), Pepcid (famotidine).
Indications: GERD, ulcers.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, dizziness.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment (dose adjustment required).
Major drug interactions: Antacids may decrease absorption.

PSI (Proton Pump Inhibitors)

Mechanism: Block gastric acid secretion, promoting healing of ulcers.
Common brand names: Nexium (esomeprazole), Prilosec (omeprazole).
Indications: GERD, peptic ulcer disease.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Increased risk of C. difficile infection, magnesium deficiency.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Clopidogrel may be affected by PPIs.

Osmotic Laxatives

Mechanism: Draw water into the intestines, increasing stool softness.
Common brand names: Miralax (polyethylene glycol), Sorbitol.
Indications: Constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Bloating, electrolytic imbalances.
Contraindications: Bowel obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Reduced absorption of other oral medications.

Stool Softeners

Mechanism: Increase water absorption in stool, making it easier to pass.
Common brand name: Colace (docusate sodium).
Indications: Prevent constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Abdominal cramping.
Contraindications: Intestinal obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Increased absorption of certain drugs.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Mechanism: Block serotonin receptors, preventing nausea and vomiting.
Common brand names: Zofran (ondansetron).
Indications: Chemotherapy-induced nausea, post-operative nausea.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, constipation.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Apomorphine can cause severe hypotension.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Mechanism: Stimulates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP and promoting relaxation.
Common brand name: Linaclotide.
Indications: Chronic constipation, IBS.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, abdominal pain.
Contraindications: Known or suspected GI obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Antacids can affect absorption.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, promoting glucose excretion.
Common brand names: Farxiga (dapagliflozin), Jardiance (empagliflozin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Urinary tract infections, genital fungal infections.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.
Major drug interactions: Diuretics may increase risk of dehydration.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, prolonging incretin levels to lower blood sugar.
Common brand names: Januvia (sitagliptin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Pancreatitis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Contraindications: History of pancreatitis.
Major drug interactions: Medications that affect renal function if administered together.

GLP-1 Agonists

Mechanism: Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon.
Common brand names: Trulicity (dulaglutide), Victoza (liraglutide).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes, obesity.
Route: Subcutaneous injection.
Side effects: Nausea, vomiting.
Contraindications: Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Major drug interactions: Oral medications may have reduced absorption.

Thiazolidinediones

Mechanism: Improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.
Common brand names: Actos (pioglitazone).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Weight gain,

Inhaled Steroids

Mechanism of action: Reduce inflammation by suppressing immune response in the lungs.
Common brand names: Flovent, Pulmicort, Qvar (generic names: fluticasone, budesonide, beclomethasone).
Indications: Asthma, COPD, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Inhalation (MDI, DPI).
Side effects: Oral thrush, hoarseness, cough.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: CYP3A4 inhibitors can increase steroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Mechanism: Combines anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator effects.
Common brand names: Advair, Breo, Symbicort (generic names: fluticasone/salmeterol, fluticasone/vilanterol, budesonide/formoterol).
Indications: Persistent asthma, COPD.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Increased risk of pneumonia, heart palpitations.
Contraindications: Asthma without a long-acting beta-agonist.
Major drug interactions: Non-selective beta-blockers may reduce effectiveness.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists)

Mechanism: Quick bronchodilation by stimulating beta-2 receptors.
Common brand names: Albuterol, Levalbuterol.
Indications: Acute asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Tremors, tachycardia.
Contraindications: Severe hypersensitivity.
Major drug interactions: Other sympathomimetics can increase side effects.

SAMA (Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Block acetylcholine receptors, leading to bronchodilation.
Common brand names: Atrovent (generic: ipratropium).
Indications: COPD, asthma exacerbations.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, dizziness.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

LAMA (Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Similar to SAMA but with prolonged action.
Common brand names: Spiriva (generic: tiotropium), Incruse (umeclidinium).
Indications: COPD, chronic asthma.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, constipation.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine or derivatives.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Mechanism: Inhibit leukotriene synthesis or receptor binding, reducing inflammation.
Common brand names: Singulair (generic: montelukast).
Indications: Asthma, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Mood changes, liver enzyme elevation.
Contraindications: Severe allergy to components.
Major drug interactions: Prednisone can reduce therapeutic effects.

PDE4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit phosphodiesterase 4, decreasing inflammation.
Common brand name: Daliresp (generic: roflumilast).
Indications: COPD (to reduce flare-ups).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, weight loss.
Contraindications: Moderate to severe liver impairment.
Major drug interactions: Theophylline may increase side effects.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects.
Common brand names: Prednisone, dexamethasone.
Indications: Severe asthma exacerbation, inflammatory diseases.
Route: Oral, injection.
Side effects: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes exacerbation.
Contraindications: Systemic fungal infections.
Major drug interactions: NSAIDs increase risk of GI bleeding.

Xanthine Derivatives

Mechanism: Bronchodilation by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and increasing cAMP.
Common brand name: Theophylline.
Indications: COPD, asthma.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Nausea, tachycardia, arrhythmias.
Contraindications: Active peptic ulcer disease.
Major drug interactions: CYP1A2 inhibitors can increase levels.

Thyroid Hormones

Mechanism: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Common brand names: Synthroid (generic: levothyroxine).
Indications: Hypothyroidism.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Hyperthyroidism if overdosage.
Contraindications: Untreated adrenal insufficiency.
Major drug interactions: Calcium and iron can decrease absorption.

H1 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit effects of histamine, reducing allergy symptoms.
Common brand names: Claritin (generic: loratadine), Benadryl (diphenhydramine).
Indications: Allergic rhinitis, insomnia (first-gen).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Drowsiness (first-gen), dry mouth.
Contraindications: Caution in asthma (first-gen).
Major drug interactions: Alcohol may increase sedation.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit gastric acid secretion via H2 receptors.
Common brand names: Zantac (ranitidine), Pepcid (famotidine).
Indications: GERD, ulcers.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, dizziness.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment (dose adjustment required).
Major drug interactions: Antacids may decrease absorption.

PSI (Proton Pump Inhibitors)

Mechanism: Block gastric acid secretion, promoting healing of ulcers.
Common brand names: Nexium (esomeprazole), Prilosec (omeprazole).
Indications: GERD, peptic ulcer disease.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Increased risk of C. difficile infection, magnesium deficiency.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Clopidogrel may be affected by PPIs.

Osmotic Laxatives

Mechanism: Draw water into the intestines, increasing stool softness.
Common brand names: Miralax (polyethylene glycol), Sorbitol.
Indications: Constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Bloating, electrolytic imbalances.
Contraindications: Bowel obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Reduced absorption of other oral medications.

Stool Softeners

Mechanism: Increase water absorption in stool, making it easier to pass.
Common brand name: Colace (docusate sodium).
Indications: Prevent constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Abdominal cramping.
Contraindications: Intestinal obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Increased absorption of certain drugs.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Mechanism: Block serotonin receptors, preventing nausea and vomiting.
Common brand names: Zofran (ondansetron).
Indications: Chemotherapy-induced nausea, post-operative nausea.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, constipation.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Apomorphine can cause severe hypotension.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Mechanism: Stimulates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP and promoting relaxation.
Common brand name: Linaclotide.
Indications: Chronic constipation, IBS.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, abdominal pain.
Contraindications: Known or suspected GI obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Antacids can affect absorption.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, promoting glucose excretion.
Common brand names: Farxiga (dapagliflozin), Jardiance (empagliflozin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Urinary tract infections, genital fungal infections.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.
Major drug interactions: Diuretics may increase risk of dehydration.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, prolonging incretin levels to lower blood sugar.
Common brand names: Januvia (sitagliptin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Pancreatitis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Contraindications: History of pancreatitis.
Major drug interactions: Medications that affect renal function if administered together.

GLP-1 Agonists

Mechanism: Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon.
Common brand names: Trulicity (dulaglutide), Victoza (liraglutide).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes, obesity.
Route: Subcutaneous injection.
Side effects: Nausea, vomiting.
Contraindications: Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Major drug interactions: Oral medications may have reduced absorption.

Thiazolidinediones

Mechanism: Improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.
Common brand names: Actos (pioglitazone).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Weight gain,

Inhaled Steroids

Mechanism of action: Reduce inflammation by suppressing immune response in the lungs.
Common brand names: Flovent, Pulmicort, Qvar (generic names: fluticasone, budesonide, beclomethasone).
Indications: Asthma, COPD, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Inhalation (MDI, DPI).
Side effects: Oral thrush, hoarseness, cough.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: CYP3A4 inhibitors can increase steroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Mechanism: Combines anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator effects.
Common brand names: Advair, Breo, Symbicort (generic names: fluticasone/salmeterol, fluticasone/vilanterol, budesonide/formoterol).
Indications: Persistent asthma, COPD.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Increased risk of pneumonia, heart palpitations.
Contraindications: Asthma without a long-acting beta-agonist.
Major drug interactions: Non-selective beta-blockers may reduce effectiveness.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists)

Mechanism: Quick bronchodilation by stimulating beta-2 receptors.
Common brand names: Albuterol, Levalbuterol.
Indications: Acute asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Tremors, tachycardia.
Contraindications: Severe hypersensitivity.
Major drug interactions: Other sympathomimetics can increase side effects.

SAMA (Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Block acetylcholine receptors, leading to bronchodilation.
Common brand names: Atrovent (generic: ipratropium).
Indications: COPD, asthma exacerbations.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, dizziness.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

LAMA (Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Similar to SAMA but with prolonged action.
Common brand names: Spiriva (generic: tiotropium), Incruse (umeclidinium).
Indications: COPD, chronic asthma.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, constipation.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine or derivatives.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Mechanism: Inhibit leukotriene synthesis or receptor binding, reducing inflammation.
Common brand names: Singulair (generic: montelukast).
Indications: Asthma, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Mood changes, liver enzyme elevation.
Contraindications: Severe allergy to components.
Major drug interactions: Prednisone can reduce therapeutic effects.

PDE4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit phosphodiesterase 4, decreasing inflammation.
Common brand name: Daliresp (generic: roflumilast).
Indications: COPD (to reduce flare-ups).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, weight loss.
Contraindications: Moderate to severe liver impairment.
Major drug interactions: Theophylline may increase side effects.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects.
Common brand names: Prednisone, dexamethasone.
Indications: Severe asthma exacerbation, inflammatory diseases.
Route: Oral, injection.
Side effects: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes exacerbation.
Contraindications: Systemic fungal infections.
Major drug interactions: NSAIDs increase risk of GI bleeding.

Xanthine Derivatives

Mechanism: Bronchodilation by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and increasing cAMP.
Common brand name: Theophylline.
Indications: COPD, asthma.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Nausea, tachycardia, arrhythmias.
Contraindications: Active peptic ulcer disease.
Major drug interactions: CYP1A2 inhibitors can increase levels.

Thyroid Hormones

Mechanism: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Common brand names: Synthroid (generic: levothyroxine).
Indications: Hypothyroidism.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Hyperthyroidism if overdosage.
Contraindications: Untreated adrenal insufficiency.
Major drug interactions: Calcium and iron can decrease absorption.

H1 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit effects of histamine, reducing allergy symptoms.
Common brand names: Claritin (generic: loratadine), Benadryl (diphenhydramine).
Indications: Allergic rhinitis, insomnia (first-gen).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Drowsiness (first-gen), dry mouth.
Contraindications: Caution in asthma (first-gen).
Major drug interactions: Alcohol may increase sedation.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit gastric acid secretion via H2 receptors.
Common brand names: Zantac (ranitidine), Pepcid (famotidine).
Indications: GERD, ulcers.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, dizziness.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment (dose adjustment required).
Major drug interactions: Antacids may decrease absorption.

PSI (Proton Pump Inhibitors)

Mechanism: Block gastric acid secretion, promoting healing of ulcers.
Common brand names: Nexium (esomeprazole), Prilosec (omeprazole).
Indications: GERD, peptic ulcer disease.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Increased risk of C. difficile infection, magnesium deficiency.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Clopidogrel may be affected by PPIs.

Osmotic Laxatives

Mechanism: Draw water into the intestines, increasing stool softness.
Common brand names: Miralax (polyethylene glycol), Sorbitol.
Indications: Constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Bloating, electrolytic imbalances.
Contraindications: Bowel obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Reduced absorption of other oral medications.

Stool Softeners

Mechanism: Increase water absorption in stool, making it easier to pass.
Common brand name: Colace (docusate sodium).
Indications: Prevent constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Abdominal cramping.
Contraindications: Intestinal obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Increased absorption of certain drugs.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Mechanism: Block serotonin receptors, preventing nausea and vomiting.
Common brand names: Zofran (ondansetron).
Indications: Chemotherapy-induced nausea, post-operative nausea.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, constipation.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Apomorphine can cause severe hypotension.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Mechanism: Stimulates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP and promoting relaxation.
Common brand name: Linaclotide.
Indications: Chronic constipation, IBS.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, abdominal pain.
Contraindications: Known or suspected GI obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Antacids can affect absorption.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, promoting glucose excretion.
Common brand names: Farxiga (dapagliflozin), Jardiance (empagliflozin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Urinary tract infections, genital fungal infections.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.
Major drug interactions: Diuretics may increase risk of dehydration.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, prolonging incretin levels to lower blood sugar.
Common brand names: Januvia (sitagliptin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Pancreatitis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Contraindications: History of pancreatitis.
Major drug interactions: Medications that affect renal function if administered together.

GLP-1 Agonists

Mechanism: Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon.
Common brand names: Trulicity (dulaglutide), Victoza (liraglutide).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes, obesity.
Route: Subcutaneous injection.
Side effects: Nausea, vomiting.
Contraindications: Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Major drug interactions: Oral medications may have reduced absorption.

Thiazolidinediones

Mechanism: Improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.
Common brand names: Actos (pioglitazone).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Weight gain,

Inhaled Steroids

Mechanism of action: Reduce inflammation by suppressing immune response in the lungs.
Common brand names: Flovent, Pulmicort, Qvar (generic names: fluticasone, budesonide, beclomethasone).
Indications: Asthma, COPD, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Inhalation (MDI, DPI).
Side effects: Oral thrush, hoarseness, cough.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: CYP3A4 inhibitors can increase steroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Mechanism: Combines anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator effects.
Common brand names: Advair, Breo, Symbicort (generic names: fluticasone/salmeterol, fluticasone/vilanterol, budesonide/formoterol).
Indications: Persistent asthma, COPD.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Increased risk of pneumonia, heart palpitations.
Contraindications: Asthma without a long-acting beta-agonist.
Major drug interactions: Non-selective beta-blockers may reduce effectiveness.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists)

Mechanism: Quick bronchodilation by stimulating beta-2 receptors.
Common brand names: Albuterol, Levalbuterol.
Indications: Acute asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Tremors, tachycardia.
Contraindications: Severe hypersensitivity.
Major drug interactions: Other sympathomimetics can increase side effects.

SAMA (Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Block acetylcholine receptors, leading to bronchodilation.
Common brand names: Atrovent (generic: ipratropium).
Indications: COPD, asthma exacerbations.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, dizziness.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

LAMA (Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Similar to SAMA but with prolonged action.
Common brand names: Spiriva (generic: tiotropium), Incruse (umeclidinium).
Indications: COPD, chronic asthma.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, constipation.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine or derivatives.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Mechanism: Inhibit leukotriene synthesis or receptor binding, reducing inflammation.
Common brand names: Singulair (generic: montelukast).
Indications: Asthma, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Mood changes, liver enzyme elevation.
Contraindications: Severe allergy to components.
Major drug interactions: Prednisone can reduce therapeutic effects.

PDE4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit phosphodiesterase 4, decreasing inflammation.
Common brand name: Daliresp (generic: roflumilast).
Indications: COPD (to reduce flare-ups).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, weight loss.
Contraindications: Moderate to severe liver impairment.
Major drug interactions: Theophylline may increase side effects.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects.
Common brand names: Prednisone, dexamethasone.
Indications: Severe asthma exacerbation, inflammatory diseases.
Route: Oral, injection.
Side effects: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes exacerbation.
Contraindications: Systemic fungal infections.
Major drug interactions: NSAIDs increase risk of GI bleeding.

Xanthine Derivatives

Mechanism: Bronchodilation by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and increasing cAMP.
Common brand name: Theophylline.
Indications: COPD, asthma.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Nausea, tachycardia, arrhythmias.
Contraindications: Active peptic ulcer disease.
Major drug interactions: CYP1A2 inhibitors can increase levels.

Thyroid Hormones

Mechanism: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Common brand names: Synthroid (generic: levothyroxine).
Indications: Hypothyroidism.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Hyperthyroidism if overdosage.
Contraindications: Untreated adrenal insufficiency.
Major drug interactions: Calcium and iron can decrease absorption.

H1 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit effects of histamine, reducing allergy symptoms.
Common brand names: Claritin (generic: loratadine), Benadryl (diphenhydramine).
Indications: Allergic rhinitis, insomnia (first-gen).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Drowsiness (first-gen), dry mouth.
Contraindications: Caution in asthma (first-gen).
Major drug interactions: Alcohol may increase sedation.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit gastric acid secretion via H2 receptors.
Common brand names: Zantac (ranitidine), Pepcid (famotidine).
Indications: GERD, ulcers.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, dizziness.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment (dose adjustment required).
Major drug interactions: Antacids may decrease absorption.

PSI (Proton Pump Inhibitors)

Mechanism: Block gastric acid secretion, promoting healing of ulcers.
Common brand names: Nexium (esomeprazole), Prilosec (omeprazole).
Indications: GERD, peptic ulcer disease.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Increased risk of C. difficile infection, magnesium deficiency.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Clopidogrel may be affected by PPIs.

Osmotic Laxatives

Mechanism: Draw water into the intestines, increasing stool softness.
Common brand names: Miralax (polyethylene glycol), Sorbitol.
Indications: Constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Bloating, electrolytic imbalances.
Contraindications: Bowel obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Reduced absorption of other oral medications.

Stool Softeners

Mechanism: Increase water absorption in stool, making it easier to pass.
Common brand name: Colace (docusate sodium).
Indications: Prevent constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Abdominal cramping.
Contraindications: Intestinal obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Increased absorption of certain drugs.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Mechanism: Block serotonin receptors, preventing nausea and vomiting.
Common brand names: Zofran (ondansetron).
Indications: Chemotherapy-induced nausea, post-operative nausea.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, constipation.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Apomorphine can cause severe hypotension.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Mechanism: Stimulates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP and promoting relaxation.
Common brand name: Linaclotide.
Indications: Chronic constipation, IBS.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, abdominal pain.
Contraindications: Known or suspected GI obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Antacids can affect absorption.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, promoting glucose excretion.
Common brand names: Farxiga (dapagliflozin), Jardiance (empagliflozin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Urinary tract infections, genital fungal infections.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.
Major drug interactions: Diuretics may increase risk of dehydration.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, prolonging incretin levels to lower blood sugar.
Common brand names: Januvia (sitagliptin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Pancreatitis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Contraindications: History of pancreatitis.
Major drug interactions: Medications that affect renal function if administered together.

GLP-1 Agonists

Mechanism: Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon.
Common brand names: Trulicity (dulaglutide), Victoza (liraglutide).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes, obesity.
Route: Subcutaneous injection.
Side effects: Nausea, vomiting.
Contraindications: Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Major drug interactions: Oral medications may have reduced absorption.

Thiazolidinediones

Mechanism: Improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.
Common brand names: Actos (pioglitazone).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Weight gain,

Inhaled Steroids

Mechanism of action: Reduce inflammation by suppressing immune response in the lungs.
Common brand names: Flovent, Pulmicort, Qvar (generic names: fluticasone, budesonide, beclomethasone).
Indications: Asthma, COPD, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Inhalation (MDI, DPI).
Side effects: Oral thrush, hoarseness, cough.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: CYP3A4 inhibitors can increase steroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Mechanism: Combines anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator effects.
Common brand names: Advair, Breo, Symbicort (generic names: fluticasone/salmeterol, fluticasone/vilanterol, budesonide/formoterol).
Indications: Persistent asthma, COPD.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Increased risk of pneumonia, heart palpitations.
Contraindications: Asthma without a long-acting beta-agonist.
Major drug interactions: Non-selective beta-blockers may reduce effectiveness.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta Agonists)

Mechanism: Quick bronchodilation by stimulating beta-2 receptors.
Common brand names: Albuterol, Levalbuterol.
Indications: Acute asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Tremors, tachycardia.
Contraindications: Severe hypersensitivity.
Major drug interactions: Other sympathomimetics can increase side effects.

SAMA (Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Block acetylcholine receptors, leading to bronchodilation.
Common brand names: Atrovent (generic: ipratropium).
Indications: COPD, asthma exacerbations.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, dizziness.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

LAMA (Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists)

Mechanism: Similar to SAMA but with prolonged action.
Common brand names: Spiriva (generic: tiotropium), Incruse (umeclidinium).
Indications: COPD, chronic asthma.
Route: Inhalation.
Side effects: Dry mouth, constipation.
Contraindications: Allergy to atropine or derivatives.
Major drug interactions: None significant.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Mechanism: Inhibit leukotriene synthesis or receptor binding, reducing inflammation.
Common brand names: Singulair (generic: montelukast).
Indications: Asthma, allergic rhinitis.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Mood changes, liver enzyme elevation.
Contraindications: Severe allergy to components.
Major drug interactions: Prednisone can reduce therapeutic effects.

PDE4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit phosphodiesterase 4, decreasing inflammation.
Common brand name: Daliresp (generic: roflumilast).
Indications: COPD (to reduce flare-ups).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, weight loss.
Contraindications: Moderate to severe liver impairment.
Major drug interactions: Theophylline may increase side effects.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects.
Common brand names: Prednisone, dexamethasone.
Indications: Severe asthma exacerbation, inflammatory diseases.
Route: Oral, injection.
Side effects: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes exacerbation.
Contraindications: Systemic fungal infections.
Major drug interactions: NSAIDs increase risk of GI bleeding.

Xanthine Derivatives

Mechanism: Bronchodilation by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and increasing cAMP.
Common brand name: Theophylline.
Indications: COPD, asthma.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Nausea, tachycardia, arrhythmias.
Contraindications: Active peptic ulcer disease.
Major drug interactions: CYP1A2 inhibitors can increase levels.

Thyroid Hormones

Mechanism: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Common brand names: Synthroid (generic: levothyroxine).
Indications: Hypothyroidism.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Hyperthyroidism if overdosage.
Contraindications: Untreated adrenal insufficiency.
Major drug interactions: Calcium and iron can decrease absorption.

H1 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit effects of histamine, reducing allergy symptoms.
Common brand names: Claritin (generic: loratadine), Benadryl (diphenhydramine).
Indications: Allergic rhinitis, insomnia (first-gen).
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Drowsiness (first-gen), dry mouth.
Contraindications: Caution in asthma (first-gen).
Major drug interactions: Alcohol may increase sedation.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Mechanism: Inhibit gastric acid secretion via H2 receptors.
Common brand names: Zantac (ranitidine), Pepcid (famotidine).
Indications: GERD, ulcers.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, dizziness.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment (dose adjustment required).
Major drug interactions: Antacids may decrease absorption.

PSI (Proton Pump Inhibitors)

Mechanism: Block gastric acid secretion, promoting healing of ulcers.
Common brand names: Nexium (esomeprazole), Prilosec (omeprazole).
Indications: GERD, peptic ulcer disease.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Increased risk of C. difficile infection, magnesium deficiency.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Clopidogrel may be affected by PPIs.

Osmotic Laxatives

Mechanism: Draw water into the intestines, increasing stool softness.
Common brand names: Miralax (polyethylene glycol), Sorbitol.
Indications: Constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Bloating, electrolytic imbalances.
Contraindications: Bowel obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Reduced absorption of other oral medications.

Stool Softeners

Mechanism: Increase water absorption in stool, making it easier to pass.
Common brand name: Colace (docusate sodium).
Indications: Prevent constipation.
Route: Oral, rectal.
Side effects: Abdominal cramping.
Contraindications: Intestinal obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Increased absorption of certain drugs.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Mechanism: Block serotonin receptors, preventing nausea and vomiting.
Common brand names: Zofran (ondansetron).
Indications: Chemotherapy-induced nausea, post-operative nausea.
Route: Oral, IV.
Side effects: Headache, constipation.
Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to components.
Major drug interactions: Apomorphine can cause severe hypotension.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Mechanism: Stimulates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP and promoting relaxation.
Common brand name: Linaclotide.
Indications: Chronic constipation, IBS.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Diarrhea, abdominal pain.
Contraindications: Known or suspected GI obstruction.
Major drug interactions: Antacids can affect absorption.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, promoting glucose excretion.
Common brand names: Farxiga (dapagliflozin), Jardiance (empagliflozin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Urinary tract infections, genital fungal infections.
Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.
Major drug interactions: Diuretics may increase risk of dehydration.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors

Mechanism: Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, prolonging incretin levels to lower blood sugar.
Common brand names: Januvia (sitagliptin).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Pancreatitis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Contraindications: History of pancreatitis.
Major drug interactions: Medications that affect renal function if administered together.

GLP-1 Agonists

Mechanism: Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion, inhibiting glucagon.
Common brand names: Trulicity (dulaglutide), Victoza (liraglutide).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes, obesity.
Route: Subcutaneous injection.
Side effects: Nausea, vomiting.
Contraindications: Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Major drug interactions: Oral medications may have reduced absorption.

Thiazolidinediones

Mechanism: Improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.
Common brand names: Actos (pioglitazone).
Indications: Type 2 diabetes.
Route: Oral.
Side effects: Weight gain,

Inhaled Corticosteroids (ICS)

Common brand names include Pulmicort (budesonide), Flovent (fluticasone), and Qvar (beclomethasone).
Indicated for chronic asthma and COPD management.
Administered through inhalation; available as aerosol or dry powder.
Side effects may include oral thrush, hoarseness, and increased risk of pneumonia.
Contraindications include hypersensitivity to components and active respiratory infections.
Major interactions with CYP3A4 inhibitors may increase corticosteroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Brands include Advair (fluticasone/salmeterol) and Symbicort (budesonide/formoterol).
Combination used for asthma not adequately controlled by ICS alone and for COPD.
Inhaled route; delivered as a combination inhaler.
Common side effects are cardiovascular effects, tremors, and increased local infections.
Contraindications include severe asthma attacks and hypersensitivity.
Drug interactions with beta-adrenergic blockers may reduce efficacy.

Short-Acting Beta Agonists (SABA)

Albuterol (Proventil, Ventolin) is a common SABA.
Primarily indicated for acute asthma symptoms and exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Administered via inhalation; metered-dose inhaler or nebulizer.
Side effects can include palpitations, tachycardia, and tremors.
Contraindicated in patients with severe hypersensitivity to the drug.
May interact with other sympathomimetics.

Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists (SAMA)

Ipratropium bromide (Atrovent) is an example.
Used for acute bronchospasm in COPD.
Administered through inhalation.
Side effects include dry mouth, dizziness, and cough.
Not recommended for patients with anaphylactic reactions to soy lecithin or related substances.
Interactions may occur with other anticholinergics.

Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists (LAMA)

Common drugs include tiotropium (Spiriva) and aclidinium (Tudorza).
Indicated for chronic management of COPD and asthma.
Inhaled route using a handihaler or soft mist inhaler.
Side effects may involve urinary retention and constipation.
Caution in patients with narrow-angle glaucoma or prostatic hyperplasia.
Limited drug interactions, but caution with other anticholinergic medications.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Include montelukast (Singulair) and zafirlukast.
Indicated for asthma, allergic rhinitis, and exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Oral administration as tablets or granules.
Side effects may include headache, fatigue, and mood changes.
Contraindicated in acute asthma attacks and known hypersensitivity.
Interactions may be seen with warfarin affecting INR.

Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibitors

Roflumilast (Daliresp) is the key drug in this category.
Indicated for severe COPD to reduce exacerbations.
Administered orally in tablet form.
Side effects include diarrhea, weight loss, and insomnia.
Contraindicated in moderate to severe liver impairment.
May interact with strong CYP3A4 and CYP1A2 inhibitors.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Common examples include prednisone and methylprednisolone.
Indicated for inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, severe allergies, and asthma exacerbations.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects range from fluid retention and hypertension to increased infection risk.
Contraindicated with systemic fungal infections and live vaccinations.
Interactions include NSAIDs increasing gastrointestinal bleeding risk.

Xanthine Derivatives

Theophylline is a prominent drug in this category.
Indicated for asthma and COPD as a bronchodilator.
Administered orally in extended-release forms or intravenously.
Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, and cardiac arrhythmias.
Contraindicated in patients with active peptic ulcers and seizure disorders.
Interacts with cytochrome P450 inducers and inhibitors.

Thyroid Hormones

Levothyroxine is the primary medication.
Indicated for hypothyroidism and thyroid-stimulating hormone suppression.
Oral route as tablets or liquid.
Side effects include palpitations, weight loss, and anxiety.
Contraindications in untreated hyperthyroidism and adrenal insufficiency.
Major interactions with anticoagulants and antidiabetic medications.

H1 Receptor Antagonists

Include cetirizine (Zyrtec) and loratadine (Claritin).
Indicated for allergic reactions, rhinitis, and urticaria.
Administered orally; available in tablets or liquid.
Common side effects include drowsiness and dry mouth.
Contraindicated with a known allergy to the drug.
Interactions may occur with CNS depressants.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Famotidine (Pepcid) and ranitidine (Zantac) are well-known examples.
Indicated for stomach ulcers, GERD, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects can include headache and dizziness.
Contraindications are allergic reactions and severe liver dysfunction.
Interacts with drugs requiring an acidic environment for absorption.

Osmotic Laxatives

Include polyethylene glycol (Miralax) and lactulose.
Indicated for constipation and bowel preparation.
Administered orally.
Side effects may be bloating, cramping, and diarrhea.
Contraindicated in bowel obstruction and known hypersensitivity.
Minimal major drug interactions but can affect absorption times.

Stool Softeners

Docusate sodium (Colace) is the primary agent.
Mainly indicated for preventing constipation.
Administered orally or rectally.
Side effects include abdominal cramping and diarrhea.
Contraindicated in patients with intestinal obstruction.
Rarely interacts with other medications.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Ondansetron (Zofran) is a key medication.
Indicated for nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy or surgery.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects can include headache and constipation.
Contraindicated in patients with hypersensitivity or long QT syndrome.
May interact with serotonergic agents leading to serotonin syndrome.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Includes linaclotide (Linzess).
Indicated for chronic constipation and IBS with constipation.
Administered orally as a capsule.
Side effects may involve diarrhea and abdominal pain.
Contraindicated in pediatric patients and those with intestinal obstruction.
Limited interactions with other gastrointestinal medications.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Key drugs include canagliflozin (Invokana) and empagliflozin (Jardiance).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes management.
Administered orally.
Common side effects include urinary tract infections and dehydration.
Contraindications in severe renal impairment.
Interactions with diuretics may increase hypotension risk.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors

Sitagliptin (Januvia) is a common example.
Used for type 2 diabetes treatment.
Administered orally.
Side effects may include nasopharyngitis and headache.
Not recommended for patients with a history of angioedema.
Limited interactions, but caution is advised with other glucose-lowering agents.

GLP-1 Agonists

Key medications include liraglutide (Victoza) and semaglutide (Ozempic).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes and weight management.
Administered via subcutaneous injection.
Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, and pancreatitis risk.
Contraindicated in history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Possible interactions with insulin and other antidiabetic agents.

Thiazolidinediones

Pioglitazone (Actos) is a prevalent drug.
Indicated for type 2 diabetes.
Administered orally.
Side effects include weight gain and risk of heart failure.
Contraindicated in severe heart failure.
Interactions with CYP2C8 substrates affecting metabolism.

Sulfonylureas

Include glimepiride (Amaryl) and glyburide (Diabeta).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes management.
Administered orally.
Side effects may consist of hypoglycemia and weight gain.
Contraindications in type 1 diabetes and diabetic ketoacidosis.
Combinations with other antidiabetic agents may potentiate hypoglycemia risk.

Biguanides

Metformin (Glucophage) is the primary medication.
Indicated for type 2 diabetes, particularly in overweight patients.
Administered orally.
Side effects can include gastrointestinal upset and lactic acidosis risk.
Contraindications in renal impairment and metabolic acidosis.
Limited interactions, but can enhance other glucose-lowering effects.

Insulin

Essential for type 1 diabetes and advanced type 2 diabetes.
Available in multiple forms: rapid-acting, long-acting, and combination insulins.
Administered through injection or insulin pumps.
Side effects include hypoglycemia and weight gain.
Contraindications in hypoglycemia.

Inhaled Corticosteroids (ICS)

Common brand names include Pulmicort (budesonide), Flovent (fluticasone), and Qvar (beclomethasone).
Indicated for chronic asthma and COPD management.
Administered through inhalation; available as aerosol or dry powder.
Side effects may include oral thrush, hoarseness, and increased risk of pneumonia.
Contraindications include hypersensitivity to components and active respiratory infections.
Major interactions with CYP3A4 inhibitors may increase corticosteroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Brands include Advair (fluticasone/salmeterol) and Symbicort (budesonide/formoterol).
Combination used for asthma not adequately controlled by ICS alone and for COPD.
Inhaled route; delivered as a combination inhaler.
Common side effects are cardiovascular effects, tremors, and increased local infections.
Contraindications include severe asthma attacks and hypersensitivity.
Drug interactions with beta-adrenergic blockers may reduce efficacy.

Short-Acting Beta Agonists (SABA)

Albuterol (Proventil, Ventolin) is a common SABA.
Primarily indicated for acute asthma symptoms and exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Administered via inhalation; metered-dose inhaler or nebulizer.
Side effects can include palpitations, tachycardia, and tremors.
Contraindicated in patients with severe hypersensitivity to the drug.
May interact with other sympathomimetics.

Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists (SAMA)

Ipratropium bromide (Atrovent) is an example.
Used for acute bronchospasm in COPD.
Administered through inhalation.
Side effects include dry mouth, dizziness, and cough.
Not recommended for patients with anaphylactic reactions to soy lecithin or related substances.
Interactions may occur with other anticholinergics.

Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists (LAMA)

Common drugs include tiotropium (Spiriva) and aclidinium (Tudorza).
Indicated for chronic management of COPD and asthma.
Inhaled route using a handihaler or soft mist inhaler.
Side effects may involve urinary retention and constipation.
Caution in patients with narrow-angle glaucoma or prostatic hyperplasia.
Limited drug interactions, but caution with other anticholinergic medications.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Include montelukast (Singulair) and zafirlukast.
Indicated for asthma, allergic rhinitis, and exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Oral administration as tablets or granules.
Side effects may include headache, fatigue, and mood changes.
Contraindicated in acute asthma attacks and known hypersensitivity.
Interactions may be seen with warfarin affecting INR.

Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibitors

Roflumilast (Daliresp) is the key drug in this category.
Indicated for severe COPD to reduce exacerbations.
Administered orally in tablet form.
Side effects include diarrhea, weight loss, and insomnia.
Contraindicated in moderate to severe liver impairment.
May interact with strong CYP3A4 and CYP1A2 inhibitors.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Common examples include prednisone and methylprednisolone.
Indicated for inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, severe allergies, and asthma exacerbations.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects range from fluid retention and hypertension to increased infection risk.
Contraindicated with systemic fungal infections and live vaccinations.
Interactions include NSAIDs increasing gastrointestinal bleeding risk.

Xanthine Derivatives

Theophylline is a prominent drug in this category.
Indicated for asthma and COPD as a bronchodilator.
Administered orally in extended-release forms or intravenously.
Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, and cardiac arrhythmias.
Contraindicated in patients with active peptic ulcers and seizure disorders.
Interacts with cytochrome P450 inducers and inhibitors.

Thyroid Hormones

Levothyroxine is the primary medication.
Indicated for hypothyroidism and thyroid-stimulating hormone suppression.
Oral route as tablets or liquid.
Side effects include palpitations, weight loss, and anxiety.
Contraindications in untreated hyperthyroidism and adrenal insufficiency.
Major interactions with anticoagulants and antidiabetic medications.

H1 Receptor Antagonists

Include cetirizine (Zyrtec) and loratadine (Claritin).
Indicated for allergic reactions, rhinitis, and urticaria.
Administered orally; available in tablets or liquid.
Common side effects include drowsiness and dry mouth.
Contraindicated with a known allergy to the drug.
Interactions may occur with CNS depressants.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Famotidine (Pepcid) and ranitidine (Zantac) are well-known examples.
Indicated for stomach ulcers, GERD, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects can include headache and dizziness.
Contraindications are allergic reactions and severe liver dysfunction.
Interacts with drugs requiring an acidic environment for absorption.

Osmotic Laxatives

Include polyethylene glycol (Miralax) and lactulose.
Indicated for constipation and bowel preparation.
Administered orally.
Side effects may be bloating, cramping, and diarrhea.
Contraindicated in bowel obstruction and known hypersensitivity.
Minimal major drug interactions but can affect absorption times.

Stool Softeners

Docusate sodium (Colace) is the primary agent.
Mainly indicated for preventing constipation.
Administered orally or rectally.
Side effects include abdominal cramping and diarrhea.
Contraindicated in patients with intestinal obstruction.
Rarely interacts with other medications.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Ondansetron (Zofran) is a key medication.
Indicated for nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy or surgery.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects can include headache and constipation.
Contraindicated in patients with hypersensitivity or long QT syndrome.
May interact with serotonergic agents leading to serotonin syndrome.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Includes linaclotide (Linzess).
Indicated for chronic constipation and IBS with constipation.
Administered orally as a capsule.
Side effects may involve diarrhea and abdominal pain.
Contraindicated in pediatric patients and those with intestinal obstruction.
Limited interactions with other gastrointestinal medications.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Key drugs include canagliflozin (Invokana) and empagliflozin (Jardiance).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes management.
Administered orally.
Common side effects include urinary tract infections and dehydration.
Contraindications in severe renal impairment.
Interactions with diuretics may increase hypotension risk.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors

Sitagliptin (Januvia) is a common example.
Used for type 2 diabetes treatment.
Administered orally.
Side effects may include nasopharyngitis and headache.
Not recommended for patients with a history of angioedema.
Limited interactions, but caution is advised with other glucose-lowering agents.

GLP-1 Agonists

Key medications include liraglutide (Victoza) and semaglutide (Ozempic).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes and weight management.
Administered via subcutaneous injection.
Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, and pancreatitis risk.
Contraindicated in history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Possible interactions with insulin and other antidiabetic agents.

Thiazolidinediones

Pioglitazone (Actos) is a prevalent drug.
Indicated for type 2 diabetes.
Administered orally.
Side effects include weight gain and risk of heart failure.
Contraindicated in severe heart failure.
Interactions with CYP2C8 substrates affecting metabolism.

Sulfonylureas

Include glimepiride (Amaryl) and glyburide (Diabeta).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes management.
Administered orally.
Side effects may consist of hypoglycemia and weight gain.
Contraindications in type 1 diabetes and diabetic ketoacidosis.
Combinations with other antidiabetic agents may potentiate hypoglycemia risk.

Biguanides

Metformin (Glucophage) is the primary medication.
Indicated for type 2 diabetes, particularly in overweight patients.
Administered orally.
Side effects can include gastrointestinal upset and lactic acidosis risk.
Contraindications in renal impairment and metabolic acidosis.
Limited interactions, but can enhance other glucose-lowering effects.

Insulin

Essential for type 1 diabetes and advanced type 2 diabetes.
Available in multiple forms: rapid-acting, long-acting, and combination insulins.
Administered through injection or insulin pumps.
Side effects include hypoglycemia and weight gain.
Contraindications in hypoglycemia.

Inhaled Corticosteroids (ICS)

Common brand names include Pulmicort (budesonide), Flovent (fluticasone), and Qvar (beclomethasone).
Indicated for chronic asthma and COPD management.
Administered through inhalation; available as aerosol or dry powder.
Side effects may include oral thrush, hoarseness, and increased risk of pneumonia.
Contraindications include hypersensitivity to components and active respiratory infections.
Major interactions with CYP3A4 inhibitors may increase corticosteroid levels.

ICS/LABA Combinations

Brands include Advair (fluticasone/salmeterol) and Symbicort (budesonide/formoterol).
Combination used for asthma not adequately controlled by ICS alone and for COPD.
Inhaled route; delivered as a combination inhaler.
Common side effects are cardiovascular effects, tremors, and increased local infections.
Contraindications include severe asthma attacks and hypersensitivity.
Drug interactions with beta-adrenergic blockers may reduce efficacy.

Short-Acting Beta Agonists (SABA)

Albuterol (Proventil, Ventolin) is a common SABA.
Primarily indicated for acute asthma symptoms and exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Administered via inhalation; metered-dose inhaler or nebulizer.
Side effects can include palpitations, tachycardia, and tremors.
Contraindicated in patients with severe hypersensitivity to the drug.
May interact with other sympathomimetics.

Short-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists (SAMA)

Ipratropium bromide (Atrovent) is an example.
Used for acute bronchospasm in COPD.
Administered through inhalation.
Side effects include dry mouth, dizziness, and cough.
Not recommended for patients with anaphylactic reactions to soy lecithin or related substances.
Interactions may occur with other anticholinergics.

Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists (LAMA)

Common drugs include tiotropium (Spiriva) and aclidinium (Tudorza).
Indicated for chronic management of COPD and asthma.
Inhaled route using a handihaler or soft mist inhaler.
Side effects may involve urinary retention and constipation.
Caution in patients with narrow-angle glaucoma or prostatic hyperplasia.
Limited drug interactions, but caution with other anticholinergic medications.

Leukotriene Modifiers

Include montelukast (Singulair) and zafirlukast.
Indicated for asthma, allergic rhinitis, and exercise-induced bronchospasm.
Oral administration as tablets or granules.
Side effects may include headache, fatigue, and mood changes.
Contraindicated in acute asthma attacks and known hypersensitivity.
Interactions may be seen with warfarin affecting INR.

Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibitors

Roflumilast (Daliresp) is the key drug in this category.
Indicated for severe COPD to reduce exacerbations.
Administered orally in tablet form.
Side effects include diarrhea, weight loss, and insomnia.
Contraindicated in moderate to severe liver impairment.
May interact with strong CYP3A4 and CYP1A2 inhibitors.

Systemic Glucocorticoids

Common examples include prednisone and methylprednisolone.
Indicated for inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, severe allergies, and asthma exacerbations.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects range from fluid retention and hypertension to increased infection risk.
Contraindicated with systemic fungal infections and live vaccinations.
Interactions include NSAIDs increasing gastrointestinal bleeding risk.

Xanthine Derivatives

Theophylline is a prominent drug in this category.
Indicated for asthma and COPD as a bronchodilator.
Administered orally in extended-release forms or intravenously.
Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, and cardiac arrhythmias.
Contraindicated in patients with active peptic ulcers and seizure disorders.
Interacts with cytochrome P450 inducers and inhibitors.

Thyroid Hormones

Levothyroxine is the primary medication.
Indicated for hypothyroidism and thyroid-stimulating hormone suppression.
Oral route as tablets or liquid.
Side effects include palpitations, weight loss, and anxiety.
Contraindications in untreated hyperthyroidism and adrenal insufficiency.
Major interactions with anticoagulants and antidiabetic medications.

H1 Receptor Antagonists

Include cetirizine (Zyrtec) and loratadine (Claritin).
Indicated for allergic reactions, rhinitis, and urticaria.
Administered orally; available in tablets or liquid.
Common side effects include drowsiness and dry mouth.
Contraindicated with a known allergy to the drug.
Interactions may occur with CNS depressants.

H2 Receptor Blockers

Famotidine (Pepcid) and ranitidine (Zantac) are well-known examples.
Indicated for stomach ulcers, GERD, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects can include headache and dizziness.
Contraindications are allergic reactions and severe liver dysfunction.
Interacts with drugs requiring an acidic environment for absorption.

Osmotic Laxatives

Include polyethylene glycol (Miralax) and lactulose.
Indicated for constipation and bowel preparation.
Administered orally.
Side effects may be bloating, cramping, and diarrhea.
Contraindicated in bowel obstruction and known hypersensitivity.
Minimal major drug interactions but can affect absorption times.

Stool Softeners

Docusate sodium (Colace) is the primary agent.
Mainly indicated for preventing constipation.
Administered orally or rectally.
Side effects include abdominal cramping and diarrhea.
Contraindicated in patients with intestinal obstruction.
Rarely interacts with other medications.

Selective 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists

Ondansetron (Zofran) is a key medication.
Indicated for nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy or surgery.
Administered orally or intravenously.
Side effects can include headache and constipation.
Contraindicated in patients with hypersensitivity or long QT syndrome.
May interact with serotonergic agents leading to serotonin syndrome.

Guanylate Cyclase Agonist

Includes linaclotide (Linzess).
Indicated for chronic constipation and IBS with constipation.
Administered orally as a capsule.
Side effects may involve diarrhea and abdominal pain.
Contraindicated in pediatric patients and those with intestinal obstruction.
Limited interactions with other gastrointestinal medications.

SGLT-2 Inhibitors

Key drugs include canagliflozin (Invokana) and empagliflozin (Jardiance).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes management.
Administered orally.
Common side effects include urinary tract infections and dehydration.
Contraindications in severe renal impairment.
Interactions with diuretics may increase hypotension risk.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors

Sitagliptin (Januvia) is a common example.
Used for type 2 diabetes treatment.
Administered orally.
Side effects may include nasopharyngitis and headache.
Not recommended for patients with a history of angioedema.
Limited interactions, but caution is advised with other glucose-lowering agents.

GLP-1 Agonists

Key medications include liraglutide (Victoza) and semaglutide (Ozempic).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes and weight management.
Administered via subcutaneous injection.
Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, and pancreatitis risk.
Contraindicated in history of medullary thyroid carcinoma.
Possible interactions with insulin and other antidiabetic agents.

Thiazolidinediones

Pioglitazone (Actos) is a prevalent drug.
Indicated for type 2 diabetes.
Administered orally.
Side effects include weight gain and risk of heart failure.
Contraindicated in severe heart failure.
Interactions with CYP2C8 substrates affecting metabolism.

Sulfonylureas

Include glimepiride (Amaryl) and glyburide (Diabeta).
Indicated for type 2 diabetes management.
Administered orally.
Side effects may consist of hypoglycemia and weight gain.
Contraindications in type 1 diabetes and diabetic ketoacidosis.
Combinations with other antidiabetic agents may potentiate hypoglycemia risk.

Biguanides

Metformin (Glucophage) is the primary medication.
Indicated for type 2 diabetes, particularly in overweight patients.
Administered orally.
Side effects can include gastrointestinal upset and lactic acidosis risk.
Contraindications in renal impairment and metabolic acidosis.
Limited interactions, but can enhance other glucose-lowering effects.

Insulin

Essential for type 1 diabetes and advanced type 2 diabetes.
Available in multiple forms: rapid-acting, long-acting, and combination insulins.
Administered through injection or insulin pumps.
Side effects include hypoglycemia and weight gain.
Contraindications in hypoglycemia.

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This quiz covers inhaled steroids and combination therapies used for asthma and COPD treatment. It includes mechanisms of action, indications, common brands, side effects, and contraindications. Test your knowledge on the management of respiratory conditions.