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Questions and Answers
Which reflex is associated with turning the head and kicking an arm and leg out?
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is equally common in males and females.
False
What is the primary recommendation to reduce the risk of SIDS?
Sleep on backs
The __________ reflex disappears at around 3 months of age and is related to an infant's stepping movements.
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Match the following reflexes with their disappearance age:
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What percentage of SIDS cases occur in infants aged 2 to 4 months?
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Environmental factors such as low socioeconomic status (SES) can increase the risk of SIDS.
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Name one potential reason for SIDS related to sleep position.
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What is NOT recommended during tummy time for infants?
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Co-sleeping is associated with a lower likelihood of SIDS in the U.S. if parents are sober.
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What is the average age of menarche that has decreased since the 19th century?
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Environmental chemicals, especially ______, are believed to contribute to earlier puberty.
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Match the following early-maturing characteristics with their effects:
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Which factor is NOT linked to earlier puberty?
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Belsky's Psychosocial Acceleration Theory states that environmental stressors influence pubertal timing.
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What are the two possible reproductive strategies proposed by the Life-history theory?
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Environmental factors like ______ can potentially affect the timing of sexual maturation.
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Which of the following is a factor that may lead to thelarche occurring at extremely early ages?
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Study Notes
Reflexes
- Rooting reflex: This reflex is present at birth and disappears around 3 weeks. It is the tendency for babies to turn their head towards any touch on their face, which helps them find food during infancy.
- Stepping reflex: This reflex is present at birth and disappears around 3 months. It involves stepping motions with the feet when held upright, preparing them for walking later in life.
- Palmar grasp reflex: This reflex is present at birth and disappears around 3-4 months. It involves grabbing anything that touches their palm, preventing the dropping of objects.
- Tonic neck reflex (fencing): This reflex appears at birth and fades around 4 months. When turned to one side, the baby extends the arm and leg on that side and flexes the opposite side. This reflex may have implications for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).
- Moro reflex: This reflex appears at birth and disappears around 6 months. It involves stretching arms and hands outwards in response to a sudden sensation of falling. This reflex helps the baby grasp the caregiver during a potential fall.
- Babinski reflex: This reflex is present at birth and disappears around 8-12 months. It involves fanning out the toes when the bottom of the foot is stroked. The absence of this reflex at birth may indicate neurological issues.
### Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
- Leading cause of death for infants in the first year.
- Accounts for approximately 1/3 of all infant deaths.
- More common in males (60%) than females (40%).
- Biological risk factors: Prematurity, low birth weight, brain stem dysfunction, heart arrhythmias, and sleep apnea.
- Environmental risk factors: Lower socioeconomic status, non-breastfeeding, exposure to smoke in the household, soft bedding, and pillows.
- Typically happens to infants aged 2-4 months, often during fall/winter due to potential overheating from blankets.
Potential Reasons for SIDS
- Suffocation/CO2: The replacement of reflexes (especially Tonic neck) with controlled movements around 2-4 months can lead to the inability to hold the head up. This poses risks with soft mattresses, pillows, and sleeping on the stomach.
- Cardiac Inefficiency: Sleeping on the stomach can reduce blood flow, potentially contributing to SIDS.
- Overheating: Pillows, blankets, and sleeping on the stomach make it harder for infants to regulate body temperature. Heat can negatively affect brain function and coordination of airway control, leading to deeper sleep and decreased likelihood of arousal.
Tips to Prevent SIDS
- Sleep infants on their backs, with supervised "tummy time" during the day to strengthen neck muscles.
- Use a firm mattress.
- Avoid pillows or stuffed animals in the crib.
- Avoid using used mattresses.
- Don't smoke around infants.
- Maintain a room temperature around 68 degrees Fahrenheit.
- Avoid hats on infants.
- Don't bundle up infants when they have a fever.
- Co-sleeping is a debated topic with potential risks and benefits.
Trends in Timing of Sexual Maturation
- The average age of menarche (first menstruation) declined from 16-17 to 12-13 years between 1850 and 1975, with only modest decreases since then.
- The age of secondary sex characteristics, including breast buds and testicular volume, continues to decline.
- Extremely early thelarche (breast development) has been observed in some populations, such as Puerto Rico, in girls as young as 2 years old.
Potential Reasons for Earlier Puberty
- Improved nutrition and decreased physical activity.
- Growth hormones in milk, meat, eggs, and cosmetics, particularly estrogen stimulators.
- Environmental chemicals, including phthalates and BPA.
- Sexually suggestive content in the environment.
- Family stress.
Correlates of Individual Differences in Pubertal Onset
-
Early-Maturing Boys:
- Immediate Effects: Confidence, relaxation, popularity, leadership roles.
- Later-life Effects: Less positive self-identities.
-
Early-Maturing Girls:
- Immediate Effects: Variable outcomes. Some experience positive peer relationships, while others exhibit problematic behaviors, including age-deviant behavior, eating disorders, and depression. Moderating factors include ethnicity and body image.
- Later-life Effects: Lower educational and professional achievement.
### Life-History Theory of Human Reproductive Strategies
- Evolutionary theory focuses on three critical tasks for maximizing reproductive success:
- Survival to puberty.
- Reproduction.
- Parenting.
- Reproduction and parenting compete with one another, leading to two possible reproductive strategies:
- Fast strategy: Early maturation, more offspring, less parental investment.
- Slow strategy: Later maturation, fewer offspring, more parental investment.
- These strategies are probabalistic, not deterministic, and may not directly influence reproductive fitness in today's world.
Psychosocial Acceleration Theory
- Proposed by Belsky to explain individual variations in pubertal timing.
- Environmental stressors, family environment, and attachment style contribute to a person’s worldview and influence pubertal timing.
- This, in turn, shapes their reproductive strategy.
Environmental Stressors
- Economic hardship, conflict, or instability can lead to faster maturation and a more "fast" reproductive strategy.
### Family Environment
- Warmer, more supportive family environments tend to be associated with later maturation and a more "slow" reproductive strategy.
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Description
Test your knowledge of the various reflexes present in infants, including the rooting, stepping, palmar grasp, tonic neck, and Moro reflexes. Explore how these reflexes aid in the development and survival of newborns. Discover the timings of these reflexes and their significance in early childhood.
