Industrial Revolution: Key Factors and Impacts

• The Industrial Revolution began in Britain due to its stability, increased food production, stable government, colonial success, overseas trade, cottage industry, the Bank of England, movement to urban areas, free trade, natural resources rights, and mineral resources.

First Wave of Industrial Revolution (1750-1830)

• Primarily in Britain, it was spearheaded by the textile industry.
• Key inventions included the Spinning Jenny (James Hargreaves, 1768) and the power loom (Cartwright, 1787).
• James Watt's steam engine (1760s) allowed factories to be located anywhere due to its use of coal.
• The iron industry grew because of the influx of machines.
• Henry Cort's puddling process (1780s) efficiently smelted iron.
• New canals were built and in 1804, Trevithick invented the first steam-powered locomotive.
• George Stephenson's engine led to the first modern railways with the "Rocket" reaching 16 mph.
• Railways facilitated the transportation of coal and iron.
• Factories had strict rules and regular, harsh hours of work.

Second Wave of Industrialization (1870-1914)

• It spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.
• Other countries quickly industrialized by adopting Britain’s strategies.
• The factory system became the dominant means of production, with mass production, assembly lines, and interchangeable parts becoming standard (e.g., Harpers Ferry arsenal).
• The Bessemer Process enabled the mass production of steel.
• Electricity powered industries and the development of chemicals for fertilizers increased agricultural production.
• Key inventions included the telegraph, radio, fridge, and internal combustion engine.
• There was more consumerism, leisure activities, luxuries for the upper middle class, and advertisements.
• Department stores were created.

Britain vs. Continent

• Britain demonstrated its industrial and economic dominance through the Crystal Palace.
• Industrialization spread rapidly to other countries using Britain’s machines and strategies.
• France initially lagged due to high tariffs, influenced by Friedrich List’s National System of Political Economy.
• Briton Samuel Slater established the first textile factory in Rhode Island.

Effects of Industrial Revolution

• Population increased due to lower death rates from famine, disease, and war, alongside an increased food supply.
• Cities like London became centered around manufacturing.
• Class consciousness emerged.
• Cities became cramped and overcrowded, with open sewers, gutters, and coal burning causing pollution.
• Urban death rates were higher than birth rates.
• Edwin Chadwick wrote “Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain” (1842) which linked disease to bad conditions in cities and advocated for sanitary reforms.
• Britain created the Public Health Act.
• The middle class rose and became entrepreneurs.
• The working class endured terrible conditions with long hours and no minimum wage, and children were exploited.
• Women also joined the workforce, increasing family income.
• There were calls for government intervention to aid the working class.
• Overall, living standards improved as employment increased and prices lowered.
• Aristocrats and the middle class benefited from industrialization sooner than the working and lower classes, who saw improvements in the second half of the 19th century.
• Parliament divided, dominated by aristocratic landowners.
• Whigs represented the industrial middle class, while Tories represented aristocratic landowners.
• The 1819 Peterloo Massacre occurred between Whigs and Tories.

Reform Movements

• Labor unions developed alongside the idea of workers acting together (Robert Owen).
• The Grand National Consolidated Trades Union was created to coordinate strikes for 8-hour workdays.
• Luddites were skilled craftspeople in England who opposed machines.
• Chartists were working-class individuals who wanted political democracy and universal male suffrage.
• The Corn Laws of 1815 imposed tariffs on cheap foreign grain.
• The Reform Bill of 1832 expanded Parliamentary representation to new industrial areas, allowing more people to vote.
• The Factory Acts of 1833 set limits on women and child labor.
• The Poor Laws of 1834 established workhouses for the poor and allocated government money to social programs.
• The Mines Act of 1842 limited the employment of children and women in mining.
• The Ten Hours Act of 1847 limited the workday for children and women.

Ideologies

• Liberalism embraced natural rights, representative government, and reform; John Stuart Mill wrote "On Liberty."
• Conservatism favored monarchy and traditional ways.
• Nationalism promoted a shared community and culture.
• Socialism advocated social ownership of production means through peaceful surrender by propertied groups; Charles Fourier wrote “Theory of Social Organization”, Robert Owen established a community in New Lanark, Scotland.
• Louis Blanc advocated for government assistance to solve social problems in “The Organization of Work”.
• Marxism advocated for collectively owned property, the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie, and a classless society. Class struggle drives social and political change. Based on history. Karl Marx wrote “The Communist Manifesto”.
• Anarchism supported the abolition of all forms of government and a society based on voluntary cooperation (Mikhail Bakunin, "The Revolutionary Catechism").
• Feminism also emerged; Flora Tristan wrote “The Workers Union”.
• Conflicting ideologies and desires for change led to revolutions and reforms.

Early 19th Century Revolts

• In Greece, a nationalist revolt against Ottoman rule began in 1821.
• Europe supported Greek independence due to its classical civilization and Christian identity.
• Britain, France, and Russia intervened, granting Greece independence by 1830.
• Russia experienced the Decembrist Revolt in 1825 when Alexander I was succeeded by the conservative Nicholas I, leading to a failed coup.
• In Italy, secret nationalist societies such as the Carbonari emerged after the Congress of Vienna divided Italy.
• Mazzini created Young Italy with the goal of unifying Italy.
• In Spain, Frederick VII initially agreed to keep the constitution called Cortes, but later dissolved it.
• The principle of intervention ended the revolt.
• Latin America revolted against Spanish and Portuguese rule, led by Simon Bolivar.

Revolts of the 1830s

• In France, the "July Revolution" saw Charles X take power and suspend legislature and voting rights.
• This led to an uprising, his fleeing, and the installment of Louis Philippe as king, who mainly supported the upper middle class.

Revolts of 1848

• These were caused by industrialization, economic disparity, rapid urbanization, and repressive measures from conservatives.
• The "Hungry 40s", a financial crisis, and increased unemployment contributed to the unrest.
• In France, the "February Days" saw crowds protesting and dethroning Louis Philippe, leading to the formation of the Second Republic.
• Tension arose between the bourgeoisie and working class, with the bourgeoisie fearing universal male suffrage.
• The “June Days” saw the bourgeoisie-led Republic ordering government troops to crush protesting workers
• Louis Napoleon elected as president (soon emperor) and had universal voting rights
• In Austria, Hungary pushed for independence, but Franz Joseph I crushed the uprising.
• In Italy, liberals pushed for independence from Austria but were crushed by Austrian and French troops.
• In Prussia, liberals initially looked to Fredrick William III but he aligned with Metternich.
• Germanic liberals created the Burschenschaften, student societies wanting freedom which burned conservative books and revolted in Wartburg, resulting in the Carlsbad Decrees.
• Burschenschaften put under monitoring and censorship

Effects:

• The Concert of Europe weakened.
• Revolutions were driven by the middle class.
• Nationalism rose but remained divided.
• There was a rise of nationalism.
• Liberal gains were slow, and conservatism strengthened.

Social History in the 19th Century

• More political parties emerged as vehicles for social, economic, and political reform, using patriotism and loyalty to build enthusiasm.
• Britain had the Whigs vs. Tories. France had Socialists vs. conservatives.
• Labor unions and movements promoted social and economic reforms.
• Parties supporting the working class emerged (e.g., Germany's Social Democratic Party, Russia's Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, Britain's Labour Party).
• Labor unions supported the working class.
• Revolutionary Marxism lost momentum due to reforms and improving conditions, leading socialists to move toward gradual change through the political process.

Feminism

• Feminism was led by middle-class women
• The movement sought equal rights, higher education, and political participation.
• The Married Women’s Property Act of 1882 allowed women to get property ownership rights in Great Britain.
• Some were attracted to socialism.
• The women’s suffrage movement fought more aggressively for voting rights with vandalism and hunger strikes.
• They developed the Women’s Social and Political Union in Britain, led by suffragettes.
• Emeline Pankhurst (Britain) helped found WPSU, organized rallies, and protested parliament.
• Flora Tristan, inspired by Utopian socialism, called for the union of all workers, including women.

Non-Governmental Reforms:

• These were led by religious organizations, philanthropy, charitable organizations, and women.
• The Temperance Movement attempted to ban alcohol.
• The Sunday School Movement provided education for working-class children.
• Josephine Butler was an early advocate against human trafficking and stood for women’s rights.
• Some sought an end to slavery.
• The London Anti-Slavery Society was founded.
• The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery in Britain.

Shifting Ideologies

• Liberalism shifted from free trade to interventionist policies.
• The middle class supported the free market and capitalism.
• The working class supported government-sponsored reform and socialism.
• Reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing through government enactment.
• Edwin Chadwick argued that disease and death caused poverty, was part of Public Relief Commissioner in Britain and helped create Britain’s first public health laws.
• The Public Health Act of 1848 constructed sanitation systems.
• Government took responsibility in improvements in city planning which France provided a model with government taking charge, providing jobs, improve living conditions.
• Georges Houssmann led redesign with new wide streets for better traffic flow and harder to barricade; public housing, lighting, open spaces, and sewer systems/aqueducts also added.
• Public transportation improved with cheaper, faster, dependable, and comfortable street cars.
• Cities expanded outwards with less congestion, and suburbs offered better housing for average incomes.
• Commuters emerged.
• Reformers promoted public education, public order, nationalism, and economic growth.

Explore the pivotal factors driving the Industrial Revolution in Britain and beyond. Understand the distinctions between its first and second phases, and the transformative role of railways. Learn about key figures like Edwin Chadwick and the economic impacts of policies such as the Corn Laws.