Industrial Chemistry Unit 3

Industrial Chemistry

• Industrial chemistry is a branch of chemistry that applies physical and chemical procedures to transform natural raw materials and their derivatives into semi-finished or finished products.
• Chemical industries use naturally or artificially available raw materials to produce desired products.
• Chemical industries involve chemical reactions to transform raw materials into finished and semi-finished products.
• Chemical industries consume relatively large quantities of energy during the manufacturing process.
• Chemical industries use safe operation methods in their manufacturing processes and test their products during and after manufacture in their quality control laboratories to ensure that the products meet the required specifications.

Natural Resources and Industries

• Natural resources are the raw materials for the chemical industry, obtained from the natural environment.
• Examples of natural resources include:
  • Atmospheric resources (e.g. N2, O2, CO2, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe)
  • Hydrospheric resources (e.g. seawater, containing dissolved materials like sodium chloride, magnesium, and bromine)
  • Lithospheric resources (e.g. coal, natural gas, crude petroleum, mineral ores like iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, etc.)
  • Biospheric resources (e.g. plants, animals, wood, natural fibers, leather)
• Natural resources can be classified as renewable and non-renewable resources.
• Renewable resources can be replenished through rapid natural cycles (e.g. plants, animals, wood, natural fibers, leather)
• Non-renewable resources cannot be replenished through natural processes (e.g. fossil fuels, metals, minerals, salts)

Manufacturing of Valuable Products/Chemicals

Ammonia (NH3)

• Properties:
  • Weak base
  • Sharp and intensely irritating gas at room temperature
• Uses:
  • Cleaning agent
  • Antimicrobial agent
  • Raw material for production of nitrogen fertilizers
  • Raw material for production of explosives
  • Used in the production of soda ash and in the Ostwald process to get nitric acid
• Preparation:
  • Produced by the Haber-Bosch process
  • Steps involved:
    • The primary requirements for production are hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2)
    • Hydrogen and nitrogen react at high pressure and temperature in the presence of iron particles
    • Liquefied ammonia is produced from the hot mixture of N2 and H2 gases

Nitric Acid

• Properties:
  • Strong acid
  • Strong oxidizing agent
  • Highly corrosive mineral acid
  • Soluble in water
• Uses:
  • Ammonium nitrate (most important mineral fertilizer used worldwide)
  • Precursor to organic nitrogen compounds
  • Used in production of explosives
  • Used in rocket fuel
  • Used in pharmaceutical industry
  • Used in production of artificial aging of wood
  • Used in detection of traces of metals in laboratory test substances
• Preparation:
  • Obtained by reacting nitrogen dioxide with water
  • Alternative production method: reaction of potassium nitrate with sulphuric acid
  • Industrially produced by the Ostwald process:
    • Ammonia is burned in excess oxygen to form nitric oxide (NO)
    • Additional air is added to cool the mixture and oxidize NO to NO2
    • NO2 gas is bubbled into warm water to produce nitric acid and nitric oxide

Nitrogen-Based Fertilizers

• Forms of nitrogen-based fertilizers:
  • Anhydrous ammonia (NH3)
  • Urea
  • Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)
  • Diammonium monohydrogen phosphate (DAP) ((NH4)2HPO4)
• Uses:
  • Plant growth and development
  • Soil acidification
  • Production of residue or char

Sulphuric Acid

• Properties:
  • Highly corrosive
  • Reactive
  • Soluble in water
• Uses:
  • Production of sulphate and phosphate fertilizers
  • Production of synthetic fibers, paints, drugs, detergents, and paper
  • Petroleum refining
  • Production of metals
  • Electrolyte in car batteries
• Preparation:
  • Manufactured industrially by the contact process
  • Steps involved:
    • Burning sulphur in air to produce sulphur dioxide
    • Converting SO2 to SO3
    • Passing SO3 into concentrated H2SO4 to produce oleum
    • Diluting oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid

Pesticides and Herbicides

• Pesticides:
  • Chemicals used to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and other plant pathogens
  • Examples of natural pesticides: Neem Leaf, Salt Spray, and Onion and Garlic Spray
• Herbicides:
  • Chemicals used to control unwanted plants
  • Examples: selective herbicides, non-selective herbicides

Sodium Carbonate

• Properties:
  • White crystalline solid powder
  • Insoluble in alcohol
  • Hygroscopic in nature
• Uses:
  • Manufacturing of glass
  • Production of detergents and soaps
  • Brick industry
• Production method:
  • Solvay process
  • Steps involved:
    • Calcination of calcium carbonate to form lime (CaO) and CO2
    • Conversion of lime to calcium hydroxide
    • Reaction of brine solution with carbon dioxide and ammonia to produce sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride
    • Conversion of sodium bicarbonate to sodium carbonate

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

• Properties:
  • Corrosive action on many substances
  • Decomposes proteins at room temperature
  • May cause chemical burns to human bodies
  • Soluble in water and moderately soluble in alcohol### Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a strongly alkaline substance that is manufactured, not naturally occurring
• Preparation methods:
  • Castner-Kellner process
  • Nelson Diaphragm cell
  • Loewig's process
• Uses:
  • Pulp and paper manufacturing
  • Alumina extraction from bauxite in aluminum production
  • Textiles industry
  • Drinking water production
  • Soap and detergent manufacturing
  • Waste gas scrubbing, saponification, and esterification reactions
  • Basic catalysis

Glass Manufacturing

• Properties of glass:
  • Inexpensive to make
  • Easy to shape when molten
  • Resistant to heat when set
  • Chemically inert
  • Can be recycled
• Types of glass:
  • Quartz glass: made from pure silica (SiO2)
  • Soda-lime glass: a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate with excess silica
  • Borosilicate glass (Pyrex): made with boron (III) oxide instead of limestone or calcium oxide
• Steps in glass production:
  1. Batch preparation
  2. Glass melting
  3. Glass forming
  4. Annealing
  5. Inspection

Ceramics Manufacturing

• Definition: inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by heat and subsequent cooling
• Materials: minerals such as clay, talc, and feldspar
• Steps in ceramic manufacturing: A. Moulding B. Densification (sintering)
• Properties of ceramics:
  • Hard and wear-resistant
  • Brittle
  • Refractory
  • Thermal and electrical insulators
  • Non-magnetic
  • Chemically stable
• Uses of ceramics:
  • Art sculptures
  • Dishes
  • Kitchenware
  • Tiles
  • Space shuttle components
  • Engine parts
  • Bone replacements

Cement Manufacturing

• Raw materials: limestone, clay, silica sand, gypsum, calcium silicate, iron (III) oxide, and magnesium oxide
• Manufacturing process:
  1. Calcination: heating limestone to 1450°C in a kiln
  2. Grinding with gypsum
  3. Formation of clinker
  4. Cooling and grinding to form cement
• Uses of cement:
  • Construction
  • Building materials

Sugar Manufacturing

• Raw material: sugarcane
• Steps in sugar production:
  1. Harvesting and transporting sugarcane
  2. Cleansing and grinding
  3. Juicing
  4. Clarifying
  5. Evaporation
  6. Crystallization
  7. Refining
• Uses of sugar:
  • Food and beverages
  • Pharmaceuticals

Paper and Pulp Manufacturing

• Raw materials: wood pulp from trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch, and hemlock
• Steps in paper production:
  1. Harvesting
  2. Preparing wood chips
  3. Pulping
  4. Bleaching
  5. Making paper from pulp
• Types of pulping:
  • Mechanical pulping
  • Chemical pulping (Kraft process or Sulphite process)

Tannery

• Definition: process of converting raw animal hides and skin to leather using tannin
• Steps in tannery:
  1. Preparatory stages: curing, soaking, flesh removal, hair removal, scudding, and deliming
  2. Tanning: using tannin to convert protein into a stable material
  3. Crusting: final stage of leather manufacturing, involving dyeing, rolling, and stretching
• Types of tanning:
  • Vegetable or natural tanning
  • Mineral tanning

Food Processing and Preservation

• Methods of food preservation:
  • Freezing
  • Freeze-drying
  • Vacuum-packing
• Use of inorganic and organic preservatives:
  • Sodium chloride (NaCl)
  • Nitrate and nitrite salts
  • Sulfites
  • Sorbic acid and sorbates
• Applications:
  • Dried fruits
  • Fruit juices
  • Wine industry
  • Sanitizing equipment

Manufacturing of Ethanol

• Note: no details provided in the original text.### Industrial Preparation of Ethanol
• Ethanol is manufactured industrially by two methods: fermentation of carbohydrates and catalytic hydration of ethene.
• Fermentation produces an alcoholic beverage with 12-15% ethanol content.
• Most liquor factories in Ethiopia use molasses as a raw material to produce ethanol.
• In the brewing industry, germinated barley (malt) is used as the starting material.
• Catalytic hydration of ethene involves treating ethene with steam at 573 K and 60 atm pressures in the presence of phosphoric acid catalyst.

Brewing of Beer

• The raw materials for beer are barley and hops.
• The process of brewing beer involves germination, fermentation, and pasteurization.
• The average beer has an alcohol content between 2-6% by volume.

Production of Wine

• Grapes are the most common raw materials for producing wines.
• The process of wine production involves crushing, steaming, fermentation, and storage.
• Most wines have an alcohol content varying from 10-16% by volume.

Liquor

• Liquor contains a higher percentage of pure alcohol compared to beer and wine.
• To get drinks with higher concentration of alcohol, the alcohol has to be separated from the solution by distillation.
• Different types of liquors have different alcohol concentrations, ranging from 30-45% by volume.

Local Preparation of Ethanol (Araki)

• The local preparation of ethanol involves a series of steps, including mixing barley with Gesho powder, fermentation, and distillation.
• The final product is called "Araki", while the leftover residue is locally called "Atela" and is used to feed cattle.

Soap and Detergent

• Soaps are either sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids.
• Soaps are prepared by boiling animal fat or vegetable oil with a base using saponification process.
• The water-soluble group in ordinary soap is –COONa, while the fat-soluble part is the chain of 17 carbon atoms.
• Industrially, soap is produced in four basic steps: saponification, glycerine removal, soap purification, and finishing.

Detergents

• Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain organic alcohols.
• The advantages of detergents include: they lather well with both soft and hard water, they are more soluble than soap in water, and they form stable emulsions with grease.

Dry Cleaning

• Dry cleaning refers to the use of different chemicals that are capable of dissolving grease and other dirt stains.
• The most commonly used chemicals in dry cleaning are organic chemicals such as tetra chloromethane, tetra chloroethylene, benzene, and gasoline.

Industrial Chemistry

• Industrial chemistry is a branch of chemistry that applies physical and chemical procedures to transform natural raw materials and their derivatives into semi-finished or finished products.
• Chemical industries use naturally or artificially available raw materials to produce desired products.
• Chemical industries involve chemical reactions to transform raw materials into finished and semi-finished products.
• Chemical industries consume relatively large quantities of energy during the manufacturing process.
• Chemical industries use safe operation methods in their manufacturing processes and test their products during and after manufacture in their quality control laboratories to ensure that the products meet the required specifications.

Natural Resources and Industries

• Natural resources are the raw materials for the chemical industry, obtained from the natural environment.
• Examples of natural resources include:
  • Atmospheric resources (e.g. N2, O2, CO2, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe)
  • Hydrospheric resources (e.g. seawater, containing dissolved materials like sodium chloride, magnesium, and bromine)
  • Lithospheric resources (e.g. coal, natural gas, crude petroleum, mineral ores like iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, etc.)
  • Biospheric resources (e.g. plants, animals, wood, natural fibers, leather)
• Natural resources can be classified as renewable and non-renewable resources.
• Renewable resources can be replenished through rapid natural cycles (e.g. plants, animals, wood, natural fibers, leather)
• Non-renewable resources cannot be replenished through natural processes (e.g. fossil fuels, metals, minerals, salts)

Manufacturing of Valuable Products/Chemicals

Ammonia (NH3)

• Properties:
  • Weak base
  • Sharp and intensely irritating gas at room temperature
• Uses:
  • Cleaning agent
  • Antimicrobial agent
  • Raw material for production of nitrogen fertilizers
  • Raw material for production of explosives
  • Used in the production of soda ash and in the Ostwald process to get nitric acid
• Preparation:
  • Produced by the Haber-Bosch process
  • Steps involved:
    • The primary requirements for production are hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2)
    • Hydrogen and nitrogen react at high pressure and temperature in the presence of iron particles
    • Liquefied ammonia is produced from the hot mixture of N2 and H2 gases

Nitric Acid

• Properties:
  • Strong acid
  • Strong oxidizing agent
  • Highly corrosive mineral acid
  • Soluble in water
• Uses:
  • Ammonium nitrate (most important mineral fertilizer used worldwide)
  • Precursor to organic nitrogen compounds
  • Used in production of explosives
  • Used in rocket fuel
  • Used in pharmaceutical industry
  • Used in production of artificial aging of wood
  • Used in detection of traces of metals in laboratory test substances
• Preparation:
  • Obtained by reacting nitrogen dioxide with water
  • Alternative production method: reaction of potassium nitrate with sulphuric acid
  • Industrially produced by the Ostwald process:
    • Ammonia is burned in excess oxygen to form nitric oxide (NO)
    • Additional air is added to cool the mixture and oxidize NO to NO2
    • NO2 gas is bubbled into warm water to produce nitric acid and nitric oxide

Nitrogen-Based Fertilizers

• Forms of nitrogen-based fertilizers:
  • Anhydrous ammonia (NH3)
  • Urea
  • Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)
  • Diammonium monohydrogen phosphate (DAP) ((NH4)2HPO4)
• Uses:
  • Plant growth and development
  • Soil acidification
  • Production of residue or char

Sulphuric Acid

• Properties:
  • Highly corrosive
  • Reactive
  • Soluble in water
• Uses:
  • Production of sulphate and phosphate fertilizers
  • Production of synthetic fibers, paints, drugs, detergents, and paper
  • Petroleum refining
  • Production of metals
  • Electrolyte in car batteries
• Preparation:
  • Manufactured industrially by the contact process
  • Steps involved:
    • Burning sulphur in air to produce sulphur dioxide
    • Converting SO2 to SO3
    • Passing SO3 into concentrated H2SO4 to produce oleum
    • Diluting oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid

Pesticides and Herbicides

• Pesticides:
  • Chemicals used to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and other plant pathogens
  • Examples of natural pesticides: Neem Leaf, Salt Spray, and Onion and Garlic Spray
• Herbicides:
  • Chemicals used to control unwanted plants
  • Examples: selective herbicides, non-selective herbicides

Sodium Carbonate

• Properties:
  • White crystalline solid powder
  • Insoluble in alcohol
  • Hygroscopic in nature
• Uses:
  • Manufacturing of glass
  • Production of detergents and soaps
  • Brick industry
• Production method:
  • Solvay process
  • Steps involved:
    • Calcination of calcium carbonate to form lime (CaO) and CO2
    • Conversion of lime to calcium hydroxide
    • Reaction of brine solution with carbon dioxide and ammonia to produce sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride
    • Conversion of sodium bicarbonate to sodium carbonate

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

• Properties:
  • Corrosive action on many substances
  • Decomposes proteins at room temperature
  • May cause chemical burns to human bodies
  • Soluble in water and moderately soluble in alcohol### Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a strongly alkaline substance that is manufactured, not naturally occurring
• Preparation methods:
  • Castner-Kellner process
  • Nelson Diaphragm cell
  • Loewig's process
• Uses:
  • Pulp and paper manufacturing
  • Alumina extraction from bauxite in aluminum production
  • Textiles industry
  • Drinking water production
  • Soap and detergent manufacturing
  • Waste gas scrubbing, saponification, and esterification reactions
  • Basic catalysis

Glass Manufacturing

• Properties of glass:
  • Inexpensive to make
  • Easy to shape when molten
  • Resistant to heat when set
  • Chemically inert
  • Can be recycled
• Types of glass:
  • Quartz glass: made from pure silica (SiO2)
  • Soda-lime glass: a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate with excess silica
  • Borosilicate glass (Pyrex): made with boron (III) oxide instead of limestone or calcium oxide
• Steps in glass production:
  1. Batch preparation
  2. Glass melting
  3. Glass forming
  4. Annealing
  5. Inspection

Ceramics Manufacturing

• Definition: inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by heat and subsequent cooling
• Materials: minerals such as clay, talc, and feldspar
• Steps in ceramic manufacturing: A. Moulding B. Densification (sintering)
• Properties of ceramics:
  • Hard and wear-resistant
  • Brittle
  • Refractory
  • Thermal and electrical insulators
  • Non-magnetic
  • Chemically stable
• Uses of ceramics:
  • Art sculptures
  • Dishes
  • Kitchenware
  • Tiles
  • Space shuttle components
  • Engine parts
  • Bone replacements

Cement Manufacturing

• Raw materials: limestone, clay, silica sand, gypsum, calcium silicate, iron (III) oxide, and magnesium oxide
• Manufacturing process:
  1. Calcination: heating limestone to 1450°C in a kiln
  2. Grinding with gypsum
  3. Formation of clinker
  4. Cooling and grinding to form cement
• Uses of cement:
  • Construction
  • Building materials

Sugar Manufacturing

• Raw material: sugarcane
• Steps in sugar production:
  1. Harvesting and transporting sugarcane
  2. Cleansing and grinding
  3. Juicing
  4. Clarifying
  5. Evaporation
  6. Crystallization
  7. Refining
• Uses of sugar:
  • Food and beverages
  • Pharmaceuticals

Paper and Pulp Manufacturing

• Raw materials: wood pulp from trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch, and hemlock
• Steps in paper production:
  1. Harvesting
  2. Preparing wood chips
  3. Pulping
  4. Bleaching
  5. Making paper from pulp
• Types of pulping:
  • Mechanical pulping
  • Chemical pulping (Kraft process or Sulphite process)

Tannery

• Definition: process of converting raw animal hides and skin to leather using tannin
• Steps in tannery:
  1. Preparatory stages: curing, soaking, flesh removal, hair removal, scudding, and deliming
  2. Tanning: using tannin to convert protein into a stable material
  3. Crusting: final stage of leather manufacturing, involving dyeing, rolling, and stretching
• Types of tanning:
  • Vegetable or natural tanning
  • Mineral tanning

Food Processing and Preservation

• Methods of food preservation:
  • Freezing
  • Freeze-drying
  • Vacuum-packing
• Use of inorganic and organic preservatives:
  • Sodium chloride (NaCl)
  • Nitrate and nitrite salts
  • Sulfites
  • Sorbic acid and sorbates
• Applications:
  • Dried fruits
  • Fruit juices
  • Wine industry
  • Sanitizing equipment

Manufacturing of Ethanol

• Note: no details provided in the original text.### Industrial Preparation of Ethanol
• Ethanol is manufactured industrially by two methods: fermentation of carbohydrates and catalytic hydration of ethene.
• Fermentation produces an alcoholic beverage with 12-15% ethanol content.
• Most liquor factories in Ethiopia use molasses as a raw material to produce ethanol.
• In the brewing industry, germinated barley (malt) is used as the starting material.
• Catalytic hydration of ethene involves treating ethene with steam at 573 K and 60 atm pressures in the presence of phosphoric acid catalyst.

Brewing of Beer

• The raw materials for beer are barley and hops.
• The process of brewing beer involves germination, fermentation, and pasteurization.
• The average beer has an alcohol content between 2-6% by volume.

Production of Wine

• Grapes are the most common raw materials for producing wines.
• The process of wine production involves crushing, steaming, fermentation, and storage.
• Most wines have an alcohol content varying from 10-16% by volume.

Liquor

• Liquor contains a higher percentage of pure alcohol compared to beer and wine.
• To get drinks with higher concentration of alcohol, the alcohol has to be separated from the solution by distillation.
• Different types of liquors have different alcohol concentrations, ranging from 30-45% by volume.

Local Preparation of Ethanol (Araki)

• The local preparation of ethanol involves a series of steps, including mixing barley with Gesho powder, fermentation, and distillation.
• The final product is called "Araki", while the leftover residue is locally called "Atela" and is used to feed cattle.

Soap and Detergent

• Soaps are either sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids.
• Soaps are prepared by boiling animal fat or vegetable oil with a base using saponification process.
• The water-soluble group in ordinary soap is –COONa, while the fat-soluble part is the chain of 17 carbon atoms.
• Industrially, soap is produced in four basic steps: saponification, glycerine removal, soap purification, and finishing.

Detergents

• Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain organic alcohols.
• The advantages of detergents include: they lather well with both soft and hard water, they are more soluble than soap in water, and they form stable emulsions with grease.

Dry Cleaning

• Dry cleaning refers to the use of different chemicals that are capable of dissolving grease and other dirt stains.
• The most commonly used chemicals in dry cleaning are organic chemicals such as tetra chloromethane, tetra chloroethylene, benzene, and gasoline.