Indonesian History

• Indonesian history spans from prehistoric times, evidenced by the 1.7 million-year-old "Java Man" discovery, to the present day.
• Indonesia has many tribes including the Batak tribe.
• Indonesian history is divided into five eras: Pre-Colonial, Colonial, Early Independence, New Order, and Reform Era.

Pre-Colonial/Kingdom Era

• Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic kingdoms emerged in Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan.
• These kingdoms heavily relied on trade.

Colonial Era

• Europeans, mainly Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish, sought spices, leading to Dutch colonization for about 350 years (early 17th to mid-20th century).

Early Independence Era

• This period spans from the 1945 Proclamation of Independence to Soekarno's fall in 1966.

New Order Era

• Soeharto's 32-year rule lasted from 1966 to 1998.

Reform Era

• This era continues to the present day.

Prehistory

• The Indonesian archipelago sits at the meeting point of the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and Pacific tectonic plates.
• The current archipelago formed around 10,000 years ago after the Ice Age.
• During the Pleistocene epoch, early settlers migrated when the islands were connected to mainland Asia.
• Homo erectus fossils, known as Java Man, date back 2 million to 500,000 years ago.
• "Flores Man" (Homo floresiensis) remains in Liang Bua, Flores, suggest H. erectus survival until the last Ice Age.
• Homo sapiens arrived in Nusantara around 100,000 years ago via coastal routes from West Asia.
• By 60,000-70,000 years ago, they reached Papua and Australia.
• These early humans, with dark skin and frizzy hair, are ancestors of Melanesians and brought the Paleolithic oval ax culture.
• Austronesian-speaking people with Neolithic culture migrated from South China via Formosa and the Philippines from 3000 BC.
• This migration brought the Dongson square ax culture and was part of the Pacific expansion.
• Mongoloid migrants moved westward, pushing earlier inhabitants eastward or intermarrying, shaping the physical traits of Maluku and Nusa Tenggara residents.
• These migrants introduced agricultural techniques, including rice cultivation (by the 8th century BC), buffalo farming, bronze and iron processing, weaving, megalithic practices, and animistic/dynamistic beliefs.
• By the 1st century BC, settlements and small kingdoms formed, likely influenced by Indian beliefs through trade.

Hindu-Buddhist Era

Early History

• Indian scholars wrote about Dwipantara or Hindu kingdoms Jawa Dwipa on Java and Swarna Dwipa on Sumatra around 200 BC.
• Early physical evidence suggests four Hindu kingdoms from the 1st to 5th centuries.
• Salakanagara Kingdom in West Java (around 130 AD), Kandis Kingdom in Sumatra, and Tarumanagara (West Java) and Kutai (Mahakam River, Kalimantan) Kingdoms emerged in the 4th-5th centuries.
• Buddhism reached the area by 425 AD.
• Nusantara had a centuries-old civilization with two major empires: Sriwijaya in Sumatra (7th-14th centuries) and Majapahit in Java (13th-16th centuries).
• Dozens of smaller kingdoms were vassals or connected through marriage and trade, predating the European Renaissance.

Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms

• In the 4th century, the Kutai Kingdom in East Kalimantan left inscriptions on stone pillars (yupa).
• Kundungga, a native of Kalimantan, founded the kingdom.
• His son, Aswawarman, adopted Hinduism.
• King Mulawarman's reign saw the arrival of Brahmins from India, who created the yupa inscriptions.
• The kingdom's center was in Muara Kaman, now a district in Kutai Kartanegara.
• Some historians identify the kingdom as Martapura, based on the Salasilah Raja within Negeri Kutai Kertanegara.
• From the 6th to 16th centuries, the Hindu-Buddhist Tarumanagara and Sunda Kingdoms existed in West Java.
• From the 7th to 14th centuries, the Buddhist Sriwijaya Kingdom flourished in Sumatra.
• The Chinese explorer I-Tsing visited its capital, Palembang, around the 670s.
• At its height, Sriwijaya controlled areas as far as West Java and the Malay Peninsula.
• Sriwijaya also witnessed the rise of the Hindu Majapahit kingdom in East Java.
• Gajah Mada, Majapahit's chief minister from 1331 to 1364, gained control over much of modern Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula.
• His legacy includes legal codification and Javanese cultural elements like the Ramayana epic.

Era of Islamic Kingdoms

• Sultanates, governed by Muslim rulers, appeared in Indonesia around the 12th century.
• Islam arrived in Indonesia in the 7th century due to busy international shipping lanes through the Malacca Strait.
• These lanes connected the Tang Dynasty in China, Sriwijaya in Southeast Asia, and the Umayyad Caliphate in West Asia.
• Tang Dynasty sources indicate that by the late 7th century, an Arab trader led a Muslim Arab settlement on Sumatra's coast.
• In 718 AD, King Srindrawarman of Sriwijaya Jambi sent a letter to Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz of the Umayyad Caliphate, requesting missionaries to explain Islam.
• In 720 AD, King Srindravarman converted to Islam, and Sriwijaya Jambi became known as 'Sribuza Islam'.
• In 730 AD, Sriwijaya Palembang, which still adhered to Buddhism, attacked Sriwijaya Jambi.
• The Sultanate of Peureulak was established on 1 Muharram 225 H (November 12, 839 AD).
• Islam entered the Kingdom of Ternate in the Maluku Islands in 1440.
• Islamic Sultanates spread their teachings and, through assimilation, replaced Hinduism and Buddhism as the main religion by the late 16th century in Java and Sumatra.
• Bali remained predominantly Hindu.
• Christian and Islamic clergy were active in the eastern islands in the 16th and 17th centuries, leading to large Christian and Muslim populations.
• Islam spread through trade relations outside Nusantara, with missionaries from Muslim countries working as traders and spreading Islam among local merchants.
• Key Islamic kingdoms included: Demak, Djipang, Samudera Pasai, Banten (which had diplomatic ties with European countries), Mataram, Iha, Gowa, Gorontalo, Ternate, and Tidore.

Colonial Era

Portuguese and Spanish Colonization

• Afonso de Albuquerque played a significant role in introducing the Nusantara region to Europeans, initiating colonization by the Portuguese, British, Dutch, and briefly the Spanish.
• Portuguese ships sailed from the Tagus River through the Atlantic, around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, to the Strait of Malacca, seeking spices in the Moluccas.
• Catholic sailors were blessed by priests and the king before sailing via the Tagus River.
• King Luis I founded the Maritime Museum in 1863 to commemorate Portuguese maritime history.
• The motivations for Portuguese expansion were: Feitoria (trade), Fortaleza (military dominance), and Igreja (Catholicism).
• Albuquerque, the second Governor of Portuguese India, led the Portuguese expansion into Asia from Goa.
• He led an expedition to Malacca in July 1511, conquering it on August 10, 1511, and gaining control over Asian spice trade.
• António de Abreu's expedition reached the Moluccas after gaining control of Malacca.
• From 1511-1526, Nusantara became a crucial maritime port for the Portuguese, connecting Sumatra, Java, Banda, and the Moluccas.
• In 1511, the Portuguese defeated the Malacca Kingdom.
• By 1522, they reached Sunda Harbor to sign a trade agreement with the King of Sunda on August 21, 1522, marking it with the Sunda-Portugal Agreement inscription.
• The Portuguese were allowed to build warehouses or fortresses in Sunda Kelapa.
• In 1512, Albuquerque sent an expedition led by Antonio de Abreu to find the spice islands.
• The Portuguese presence left historical marks, especially in Flores, Solor, and Maluku.
• Kampong Tugu in Jakarta is inhabited by people who identify as "Portuguese" descendants.
• The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach Maluku in 1512, with expeditions led by Antonio de Abreu and Fransisco Serrao landing in Banda and Penyu Islands.
• They befriended local rulers, such as the Sultanate of Ternate, and were allowed to build a fort in Pikaoli on Ambon Island.
• The spice trade relations were short-lived due to Portuguese monopoly practices and Christianization efforts that caused resentment.
• Francis Xavier was a notable missionary, arriving in Ambon in 1546 and then Ternate.
• In 1575, the Portuguese surrendered to Sultan Baabullah of Ternate.
• The Dutch exploited the Moluccan people's resistance against the Portuguese, with the Dutch forcing the Portuguese to surrender their defenses in Ambon and Tidore in 1605.
• The Dutch destroyed the English fort on Kambelo Island, Seram, gaining control over most of Maluku.
• The VOC strengthened the Dutch position in Maluku in 1602, becoming the sole ruler and controlling the clove trade for about 350 years.
• Under Jan Pieterszoon Coen, the VOC expelled rivals like the Portuguese, Spanish, and English, and caused the deaths of tens of thousands of Moluccans.
• The Portuguese built a fort in Ternate in 1511 and in Amurang, North Sulawesi, in 1512.
• After losing a war to Spain, the Portuguese ceded North Sulawesi to Spanish rule (1560-1660).
• The Portuguese kingdom merged with Spain.
• In the 17th century, the VOC expelled the Portuguese from Ternate, leading them to retreat and control East Timor (since 1515).
• Colonialism and imperialism began in Indonesia around the 15th century with the Portuguese landing in Malacca and the Dutch, led by Cornelis de Houtman, in 1596, seeking spices and trade.

Resistance of the Indigenous People

• Due to the enforcement of monopolistic trade practices by the Portuguese, several rebellions and resistance movements against them emerged amongst the local population
• The Minahasa people fought against the Portuguese from 1512-1560
• The Portuguese built some defense fortresses in Minahasa, including in Amurang and Kema.
• Albuquerque led the Portuguese to attack the Malacca Kingdom, but the resistance in 1513 failed due to the superior strength of Portuguese forces.
• In 1527, Fatahillah/Falatehan of Demak controlled Banten, Sunda Kelapa, and Cirebon, destroying the Portuguese fleet and renaming Sunda Kelapa to Jayakarta.
• From 1554 to 1555, Aceh resisted the Portuguese.
• During Sultan Iskandar Muda's reign, Aceh attacked the Portuguese in Malacca between 1615 and 1629.
• The Portuguese first landed in Maluku in 1511.
• Ternate resented the Portuguese for their greed in monopolizing the spice trade.
• In 1533, the Sultan of Ternate called for the expulsion of the Portuguese.
• In 1570, Sultan Hairun led another resistance against the Portuguese but was deceived and killed.
• Sultan Baabullah then led the resistance, which resulted in the Portuguese expulsion and retreat to Timor in 1574.

Timeline of European Colonization in Indonesia

Spanish Colonization

• 1521: Spanish landed in North Sulawesi.
• 1560: Spanish established a post in Manado.
• 1617: Minahasa people revolted against Spanish rule.
• 1646: Spanish were expelled from Minahasa and North Sulawesi.
• They attempted to influence nearby kingdoms to reclaim Minahasa until 1692 but failed.

Portuguese Colonization

1509-1520

• 1509: Portuguese arrived in Melaka.
• 1511:
  • April: Afonso de Albuquerque sailed from Goa to Malacca.
  • August 10: Albuquerque's forces seized Melaka.
  • Sultan Mahmud Syah of Melaka fled to Riau.
  • The Portuguese in Melaka destroyed a fleet from Demak.
  • Pati Unus ruled in Jepara.
  • December: Albuquerque sent three ships under Antonio de Abreu to explore eastward.
• 1512: De Abreu's expedition traveled from Melaka to Madura, Bali, Lombok, Aru, and Banda.
  • Two ships were damaged in Banda.
  • De Abreu returned to Melaka, while Francisco Serrão continued to Ambon, Ternate, and Tidore, offering Ternate support and establishing a Portuguese post.
• 1513: Jepara and Palembang attacked the Portuguese in Melaka but were repelled.
  • Portuguese contacted the King of Sunda in Pajajaran and were allowed to build a fortress in Sunda Kelapa (Jakarta).
  • Portuguese contacted Raja Udara of the former Majapahit kingdom.
• 1514: Ali Mughayat Syah established the Sultanate of Aceh.
• 1515: Portuguese arrived in Timor.
• 1518: Sultan Mahmud of Melaka took over Johor.
  • Raden Patah died, and Pati Unus became Sultan of Demak.
• 1520: Aceh gained control of northeast Sumatra.
  • Balinese attacked Lombok.
  • Portuguese traders visited Flores and Solor.
  • Banjar in Kalimantan became an Islamic Sultanate.

1521-1530

• 1521: Adipati Unus led a fleet from Demak and Cirebon against Melaka but was killed.
  • Trenggono became Sultan of Demak.
  • Portuguese seized Pasai in Sumatra.
  • Sunan Gunung Jati left Pasai for Mecca.
  • Magellan's expedition sailed between Lembata and Pantar.
• 1522:
  • February: De Brito's expedition arrived in Banda.
  • May: De Brito built a Portuguese fort in Ternate.
  • Hindu Kingdom of Sunda sought Portuguese aid against Demak, signing a contract and erecting a padrão in Sunda Kelapa.
  • Magellan's expedition visited Timor.
  • Portuguese built a fort in Hitu, Ambon.
• 1523: Sunan Gunung Jati returned from Mecca, settling in Demak and marrying Sultan Trenggono's sister.
• 1524: Sunan Gunung Jati and Hasanuddin weakened the Kingdom of Sunda and its alliance with the Portuguese through conversion efforts.
  • Aceh seized Pasai and Pedir.
• 1525: Hasanuddin spread Islam in Lampung.
• 1526: Portuguese built the first fort in Timor.
• 1527: Demak conquered Kediri, and Demak sultans claimed to be Majapahit successors.
  • Demak seized Tuban.
  • Cirebon, aided by Demak, occupied Sunda Kelapa, renaming it Jayakarta
  • Palakaran in Madura converted to Islam under Kyai Pratanu.
  • Spanish and Mexican expeditions tried to expel the Portuguese from Maluku.
• 1529: Demak conquered Madiun.
  • Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Zaragoza, giving Maluku to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.
• 1530: Salahuddin became Sultan of Aceh. Surabaya and Pasuruan submitted to Demak.
  • Demak conquered Blambangan, the last Hindu kingdom in East Java.
  • Gowa Sultanate expanded from Makassar.
  • Banten expanded influence over Lampung.

1531-1540

• 1536: Portuguese attacked Johor. Antonio da Galvão governed Ternate and established a post in Ambon.
  • The Portuguese exiled Sultan Tabariji and replaced him with his brother.
• 1537: Aceh's attack on Melaka failed.
  • Salahuddin was replaced by Alaudin Riayat Syah I.
• 1539: Aceh attacked the Batak people.
• 1540: Portuguese strengthened ties with Gowa.
  • The Butung Sultanate was founded.

1541-1550

• 1545: Demak conquered Malang.
  • Gowa built a fort in Ujung Pandang.
• 1546: Demak attacked Blambangan but failed.
  • Trenggono died and Prawata succeeded him of Demak, expanding his influence from Pajang.
  • St. Francis Xavier visited Manado and Kema.
• 1547: Aceh attacked Malaka.
• 1549: Sunan Prawata died.
• 1550: Portuguese began building forts in Flores.

1551-1560

• 1551: Johor attacked Portuguese Melaka with Jepara's fleet.
  • Ternate seized Jailolo with Portuguese aid.
• 1552: Hasanuddin seceded from Demak, established Banten, and seized Lampung.
  • Aceh sent an envoy to Suleiman I in Istanbul.
• 1558: Leiliato led an attack on the Portuguese in Hitu.
  • The Portuguese built a fort in Bacan.
  • Ki Ageng Pemanahan received Mataram from Joko Tingkir.
  • Smallpox epidemic in Ternate.
• 1559: Portuguese missionaries landed in Timor.
  • Khairun became Sultan of Ternate.
• 1560: Portuguese established a mission in Panarukan, East Java.
  • Spanish established a post in Manado.

1561-1570

• 1561: Portuguese Dominican mission founded in Solor.
• 1564: Smallpox epidemic in Ambon.
• 1565: Aceh attacked Johor.
  • Kutai in Kalimantan became a Sultanate.
• 1566: Portuguese Dominican mission built a stone fort in Solor.
• 1568: Failed attack by Aceh on Portuguese Melaka.
• 1569: Portuguese built a wooden fort in Ambon.
• 1570: Aceh attacked Johor again but failed.
  • Sultan Khairun of Ternate signed a peace treaty, but the Sultan was murdered by Portuguese agents.
  • Baabullah became Sultan of Ternate, vowing to expel the Portuguese from their fortresses.

1571-1590

• 1571: Alaudin Riyat Shah died, leading to chaos in Aceh until 1607. 1574: Jepara led an unsuccessful attack on Melaka.
• 1575: Sultan Babullah expelled the Portuguese from Ternate, forcing them to build a fort in Tidore.
• 1576: Portuguese built a fort in modern-day Ambon.
• 1577: Ki Ageng Pemanahan founded Kota Gede (near Yogyakarta).
• 1579: Banten attacked and destroyed Pajajaran, conquering the remnants of the Sunda Kingdom and implementing Islamization.
  • The last Sunda king fled and died in exile.
  • Sir Francis Drake arrived in Ternate.
  • Sultan Babullah, who hated the Spanish, formed a friendship pact with Britain.
• 1580: Kyai Ageng Pemanahan took over Mataram, changing his name to Kyai Gedhe Mataram.
• 1584: Sutawijaya succeeded Kyai Gedhe Mataram, ruling from Kota Gede.
• 1585: The Sultan of Aceh wrote to Elizabeth I of Britain.
• 1587: Sutawijaya defeated Pajang and Joko Tingkir died;
  • Gunung Merapi erupted.
  • Portuguese in Melaka attacked Johor.
• 1588: Sir Thomas Cavendish visited Java
• 1588: Sutawijaya changed his name to to Panembahan Senopati taking over Pajang and Demak
• 1590: The original village of Medan was founded.

1591-1659

• 1591: Senopati captured Madiun, then Kediri.
  • Sir James Lancaster arrived in Aceh and Penang.
  • Ternate attacked the Portuguese in Ambon.
• 1593: Ternate besieged the Portuguese in Ambon again.
• 1595: April 2nd, the Dutch expedition was led by De Houtman to the Dutch East Indies
  • Suriansyah made Banjar in Kalimantan a Sultanate (later Banjarmasin).
  • The Portuguese built a fort in Ende, Flores
• 1654: The Minahasa allowed the Dutch to build a lodge in Manado.

VOC Colonization

• From 1602, the VOC competed with Portugal and Spain for spice trade in the East Indies, gradually controlling Indonesia by exploiting conflicts among small kingdoms.
• The VOC eliminated the English EIC, which remained in Bengkulu until 1824.
• Portuguese Timor was the last Portuguese colony, remaining under Portugal until 1975.
• In the 17th and 18th centuries, the VOC, not the Dutch government, controlled the Dutch East Indies.
• The VOC had a trade monopoly and colonial rights granted by the Dutch Parliament in 1602, with its headquarters in Batavia (Jakarta).
• The VOC and the Dutch colonial government dominated Indonesia for almost 350 years (1602-1945).
• The British briefly controlled Indonesia due to the Java War and during the Japanese occupation in World War II.
• VOC rule caused widespread suffering due to monopolies, wars, and taxes.
• After the VOC's bankruptcy in 1799, the Dutch government took over, transforming the Dutch East Indies into a wealthy colony.
• 350 years of Dutch colonization is an overestimation because many areas in Indonesia such as Aceh and Papua were only fully conquered by the Dutch close to the 20th century.
• The VOC aimed to maintain its spice trade monopoly through violence against spice-producing islands and non-Dutch traders.
• For instance, the VOC killed or deported most of Banda Islands' population for selling nutmeg to the English and repopulated the islands with laborers.
• The VOC became involved in Javanese internal politics, fighting in wars involving Mataram and Banten leaders.

Colonization by the Dutch Government

Napoleonic Era (1800-1811)

• After the VOC's collapse on January 1, 1800, and the Netherlands' defeat in Europe, the Dutch East Indies fell to France.
• Power struggles ensued between France (Netherlands) and Great Britain, marked by territorial shifts and agreements like the Treaty of Amiens and the Tuntang Capitulation.
• The Dutch East Indies were governed by Overstraten, Wiese, Daendels, and Janssens.
• Daendels built the Great Post Road (Anyer-Panarukan) and expanded control to Lampung but lost Ambon, Ternate, and Tidore to Britain.
• In 1810, France annexed the Netherlands and Daendels returned to Europe to fight under Napoleon.
• Janssens was replaced, which ultimately led to Britain seizing Java.

British Interregnum (1811-1816)

• After Britain seized Java, governance temporarily shifted from the Netherlands to Britain.
• Lord Minto became the first Governor-General based in India, while Raffles was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Java.
• Raffles reformed Javanese governance according to the British system.
• An important discovery during Raffles' administration was the rediscovery of Borobudur Temple.
• Mount Tambora in Sumbawa erupted, causing tens of thousands of deaths.

Rule of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (since 1816)

• After the Congress of Vienna restored Java to the Netherlands, the Dutch government gained full power over the Dutch East Indies from August 16, 1816.
• Major rebellions occurred in Java and Sumatra, including the Java War (1825-1830) and the Padri War (1821-1837).
• After 1830, the cultuurstelsel (Cultivation System) was implemented, forcing locals to grow cash crops like tea and coffee for export.
• This system enriched those who implemented it but was abolished after 1870.
• In 1901, the Dutch adopted the Ethical Policy, investing more in indigenous education and introducing minor political changes.
• Under Governor-General J.B. van Heutsz, the Dutch extended direct colonial rule, establishing the foundation for modern Indonesia.

Nationalist Movement

• The first nationalist organization, Serikat Dagang Islam, was formed in 1905, followed by Budi Utomo in 1908.
• The Dutch responded with repressive measures after World War I.
• Nationalist leaders, consisting of young professionals and students, were often educated in the Netherlands.
• Many were imprisoned for political activities, including Indonesia's first president, Soekarno.

World War II

• In May 1940, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany.
• The Dutch East Indies declared a state of alert and redirected exports from Japan to the United States and Britain.
• Negotiations to secure aviation fuel supplies with Japan failed in June 1941, and Japan began its Southeast Asian conquest in December.
• A faction in Sumatra received Japanese support to revolt against the Dutch government.
• The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.

Japanese Occupation

• In July 1942, Soekarno accepted Japan's offer to campaign and form a government.
• Soekarno, Mohammad Hatta, and Kyais gained recognition from the Japanese Emperor in 1943.
• The Japanese occupation varied depending on location and social status.
• Areas important for the war effort experienced torture, sexual slavery, arbitrary detention, executions, and other war crimes.
• Dutch and mixed Indonesian-Dutch people were targeted.
• In March 1945, Japan formed the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPKI).
• Soepomo discussed national integration versus individualism, while Muhammad Yamin proposed claiming Sarawak, Sabah, Malaya, Portuguese Timor, and all pre-war Dutch East Indies territories.
• On August 9, 1945, Soekarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat met with Marshal Terauchi in Vietnam.
• They were informed of Japan's impending defeat but were promised Indonesian independence on August 24.

Independence Era

Declaration of Independence

• On August 16, hearing that Japan could no longer make such decisions, Soekarno proclaimed Indonesia's independence on August 17.
• The news spread through radio and leaflets, defended by wartime Indonesian military forces (PETA), youth groups, and others.
• On August 18, 1945, the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) appointed Soekarno as President and Mohammad Hatta as Vice President using a recently drafted constitution.
• The Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) was formed as a temporary parliament until elections could be held.
• The new government declared on August 31, envisioning an Indonesian Republic of 8 provinces: Sumatra, Kalimantan, West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, Maluku (including Papua), and Nusa Tenggara.

War of Independence

• From 1945 to 1949, Australian maritime unions sympathetic to independence blocked Dutch shipping, denying logistical support and supplies for re-establishing colonial rule.
• Dutch efforts faced strong resistance.
• After returning to Java, Dutch forces seized Batavia, prompting the nationalists to make Yogyakarta their capital.
• On December 27, 1949, after four years of war and negotiation, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands transferred sovereignty to the Federal Government of Indonesia.
• In 1950, Indonesia became the 60th member of the UN.

Parliamentary Democracy

• Indonesia adopted a parliamentary system where the executive council was elected.
• Political parties in the MPR hindered the formation of stable governing coalitions before and after the 1955 election.
• The role of Islam in Indonesia was a point of contention
• Soekarno preferred a secular state, while Muslim groups desired an Islamic state.
• Parliamentary Democracy gives more power to the legislative body rather than the executive body.
• The head of Government is lead by the Prime Minister.
• The Prime Minister and ministers in the cabinet can be appointed and dismissed by parliament.
• Within the framework of parliamentary democracy, the President can be appointed as the head of State.

Guided Democracy

• Failed rebellions beginning in 1958 and the MPR's failure to create a new constitution weakened Indonesia's parliamentary system.
• In 1959, President Soekarno unilaterally reinstated the 1945 constitution.
• From 1959 to 1965, President Soekarno ruled in a time known as "Guided Democracy."
• Soekarno shifted Indonesia's foreign policy to align it with the "non-aligned" movement.

Fate of West Irian

• During the independence struggle, the Dutch retained control of western New Guinea (Papua).
• The Round Table Conference in 1949 agreed to discuss the status of Dutch New Guinea a year after sovereignty transfer.
• After these discussions, the Netherlands New Guinea permitted steps towards self-government and declared independence on December 1, 1961.
• Negotiations regarding the integration of the region with Indonesia failed, leading to Indonesian paratrooper landings and clashes in 1961 and 1962.
• In 1962, the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks, resulting in the New York Agreement in August 1962, and Indonesia took control of West Irian on May 1, 1963.

Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation

• Soekarno opposed the formation of the Federation of Malaysia, calling this a "neo-colonialism scheme."
• The formation of the Malaysian Federation would expand the influence exerted by Western imperialism.
• In response to recognizing Malaysia's ascension into a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, Soekarno announced Indonesia's withdrawal from the UN on January 20, 1965.
• Soekarno established the Conference of New Emerging Forces (CONEFO) as a counterpart to the UN.

September 30th Movement

• By 1965, the PKI controlled many mass organizations formed by Soekarno and, with his approval, began arming its supporters.
• Military leaders opposed this.
• On September 30, 1965, six senior generals and others were killed in a failed coup attempt blamed on PKI-affiliated palace guards under Lieutenant Colonel Untung Syamsuri.
• Major General Soeharto of the Army Strategic Reserve Command crushed the coup and turned against the PKI.
• Soeharto used this situation to seize power, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of accused communists.
• Civilian deaths are estimated to be around 500,000.

New Order Era

• One of Soeharto's first actions was readmitting Indonesia to the UN.
• On September 19, 1966, Indonesia announced its intention to resume cooperation, officially rejoining on September 28, 1966.
• In 1968, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) formally appointed Soeharto for a 5-year term as president.
• He was reappointed consecutively in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.
• Soeharto initiated the "New Order," dramatically changing domestic and foreign policies.
• The New Order prioritized economic development (Pelita) through a military-dominated administrative structure, advised by Western-educated economists.
• The exploitation of natural resources led to significant, though uneven, economic growth.
• Starvation was substantially reduced in the 1970s and 1980s.

Irian Jaya

• The Indonesian government implemented the "Act of Free Choice" in Irian Jaya in 1969, selecting 1,025 regional heads who, after training in Indonesian, chose to join Indonesia.
• A UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of power.
• Resistance to Indonesian rule led to small-scale guerrilla activities.
• After 1998, explicit calls for independence emerged.

East Timor

• From 1596 to 1975, East Timor was a Portuguese colony known as Portuguese Timor.
• Due to political events in Portugal, Portuguese officials withdrew from East Timor in 1975.
• The Fretilin party and the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) became the largest parties, campaigning for independence from Portugal.
• On December 7, 1975, Indonesian forces invaded East Timor in Operation Seroja.
• Indonesia, supported by the United States and Australia, aimed to gain oil and gas reserves and strategic territory.
• In initial stages, Indonesia killed almost 200,000 East Timorese citizens through murder, starvation, etc.
• On August 30, 1999, East Timorese voted to separate from Indonesia in a UN-held referendum, with 75% voting for independence.
• After the results, the Indonesian military destroyed infrastructure.
• In October 1999, the MPR revoked the 1976 decree integrating East Timor, and the UN Transitional Administration (UNTAET) governed East Timor until full independence in May 2002 as Timor Leste.

Economic Crisis

• In mid-1997, Indonesia was hit by the Asian financial and economic crisis, severe drought, and falling export commodity prices.
• The Rupiah's value dropped, inflation rose sharply, and capital flight accelerated.
• Protesters, led by students, demanded Soeharto's resignation.
• Soeharto resigned due to mass unrest on May 21, 1998, then transferring power to Vice President B. J. Habibie.

Reformation Era

Habibie Administration

• President Habibie formed a cabinet and sought support from the International Monetary Fund and donor countries for economic recovery.
• He freed political prisoners and reduced restrictions on freedom of expression.

Gus Dur Administration

• Elections for the MPR, DPR, and DPRD were held on June 7, 1999.
• PDI Perjuangan, led by Megawati Sukarnoputri, won the parliamentary election with 34% of the vote.
• In October 1999, Abdurrahman Wahid was elected president and Megawati vice president.
• Gus Dur formed the National Unity Cabinet in November 1999 and reshuffled it in August 2000.
• President Wahid continued democratization and economic development amidst ethnic and religious conflicts, particularly in Aceh, Maluku, and Papua.
• Problems posed by homeless East Timorese and pro-Indonesia militias created humanitarian issues in West Timor.
• Gus Dur was impeached, ceding the presidency to Megawati.

Megawati Administration

• At the MPR General Session in August 2000, President Gus Dur delivered his report.
• On January 29, 2001, thousands protested, demanding his resignation due to corruption, Megawati took over the Presidential position shortly after.
• The Sipadan and Ligitan Islands were lost in 2002 based on the International Court's decision.

SBY Administration

• In 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY) was elected as the first directly-elected president.
• The new government faced trials such as the Aceh earthquake in December 2004 and Sumatra earthquake in early 2005.
• On July 17, 20