Indigenous Peoples & Treaties in Canada

Indigenous Peoples

• First Peoples of Canada, including First Nations, Métis, and Inuit are referred to as Indigenous
• First Nations are Indigenous people who are neither Métis nor Inuit, with over 600 recognized communities in Canada
• Inuit are Indigenous peoples in the Arctic regions, including Nunavut, Northwest Territories, and Northern Québec
• Métis are people of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry, with distinct cultural practices and language (Michif)
• Status Indians are legally recognized under the Indian Act, and are eligible for certain rights and benefits
• Non-Status Indians self-identify as Indigenous but are not legally recognized under the Indian Act and may have lost status due to discriminatory policies
• Turtle Island is the Indigenous name for North America, emphasizing a worldview rooted in balance, interconnectedness, land stewardship, the sacredness of nature, and respect for the land

Treaties – Two Row Wampum

• The Two Row Wampum (Guswenta) is a treaty belt symbolizing peaceful co-existence between the Haudenosaunee and Dutch settlers (1613)
• Two parallel rows on the wampum belt represent two vessels: one for Indigenous peoples, one for settlers—travelling side-by-side, and not interfering with each other
• It is a symbol of mutual respect, sovereignty, and non-interference, and is often referenced in discussions around reconciliation and treaty rights today

Indian Act Timeline

• 1876: The Indian Act was created as a colonial tool to control and assimilate Indigenous peoples by outlawing traditional ceremonies, restricting movement, and imposing Eurocentric governance
• 1884: Potlatch and other ceremonies were banned
• 1920s: Attendance at residential schools was made mandatory
• 1951: Major revisions occurred, some bans were lifted, but it was still paternalistic
• 1985: Bill C-31 restored status to women and their children who had lost it through marriage to non-Indigenous men
• The Act still exists today, though it has been amended

Residential Schools

• Government-funded, church-run schools aimed to assimilate Indigenous children, designed to "kill the Indian in the child"
• Over 150,000 Indigenous children attended between the 1830s and 1996
• Survivors report abuse, neglect, cultural erasure, and intergenerational trauma
• The last federally-run school closed in 1996 in Saskatchewan

Sixties Scoop

• Government practice (1960s–1980s) of removing Indigenous children from families and placing them into non-Indigenous foster or adoptive homes
• Disconnected many from culture, identity, and community
• Long-term impact: loss of language, cultural roots, and familial ties

Indigenous Customs

• Ceremonies include smudging, sweat lodges, Pow Wows, Sun Dance, and Potlatch
• Oral Traditions involve knowledge passed through stories, teachings from Elders
• Land-Based Practices: Hunting, fishing, and seasonal cycles are central to identity
• Respect for Elders see them as knowledge keepers and guides
• Spirituality is holistic, where everything is interconnected (mind, body, spirit, nature)

Truth & Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC)

• The TRC was formed in 2008 as part of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement
• Survivors shared stories of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, forced separation from family, and loss of language/culture, resulting in shame, trauma, and long-term mental health struggles
• The mission is to document the truth of survivors and facilitate healing and reconciliation, and to promote public awareness and education

5 Key Legacy Areas

• Child Welfare: There is overrepresentation of Indigenous children in foster care
• Education: There is a call for culturally appropriate curricula
• Language and Culture: There should be revitalization of Indigenous languages
• Health: There is a need for culturally safe and equitable services
• Justice: It is important to address systemic discrimination and over-incarceration