Indigenous Peoples Before European Arrival

The theory that Indigenous people in North America arrived from Asia over a land bridge between Siberia and North America, at least 14,000 years ago.

The theory that Indigenous people migrated southward through North America via an ice-free corridor.

A group of closely related languages that share a common ancestor.

Indigenous people in present-day Central/Eastern U.S. who were known for their large-scale earthwork mounds.

A culture that flourished in the Ohio and Illinois Valley, known for their pottery and influence on other Indigenous groups.

A culture that emerged in present-day U.S. between 700-1400 AD, known for constructing fortified cities and relying heavily on agriculture.

A period of time from 100 AD to 500 AD, when the Hopewell Culture spread to Ontario and their pottery was found in Alberta.

The Five Nations Confederacy, composed of Indigenous groups from the Great Lakes region, who relied heavily on agriculture for survival.

A confederacy of Indigenous groups, including the Huron, who lived at Georgian Bay, Ontario and had a population of around 30,000.

The term that refers to the way Indigenous peoples survived and thrived in different parts of North America.

A spiritual belief shared by numerous Indigenous groups that there's no separation between humans and the environment.

A ceremony with social and religious importance among the Salish and Haida, used for events like inaugurations, mourning, or status confirmation.

A type of traditional Indigenous house built in the Arctic, usually made of ice blocks, and used primarily during winter.

A group of Indigenous peoples from the Arctic region, known for their hunting and fishing skills, as well as their use of kayaks and umiaks for transportation.

The practice of tracing one's lineage through the mother's side of the family.

The practice of tracing one's lineage through the father's side of the family.

A widespread belief among Indigenous groups that the spirits of animals and objects must be respected through rituals and offerings.

A way to connect with the spiritual world through visions, often involving fasting and solitude.

The role of women in Indigenous societies varied, with some, like the Haida, having significant economic and social power, while others, like the Salish, had limited autonomy.

The reliance on different resources for survival, such as agriculture (Great Lakes) or fishing (West Coast), shaped distinct cultural practices and social structures among Indigenous groups.

The Iroquois Confederacy, originally consisting of five (later six) tribes in New York state, was a unified group with a strong political structure. This powerful confederacy, made up of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations (later adding the Tuscarora), influenced the region significantly.

Iroquois society was matrilineal, meaning that family lineage and inheritance were traced through the mother's line. This resulted in considerable power and influence for women. A man usually moved into his wife's home upon marriage, reflecting the importance of female lineage in Iroquois society.

In Iroquois communities, decision-making was based on consensus. All members, especially the women, had a voice in matters affecting the community. This was a powerful and democratic system.

Iroquois warfare often focused on revenge, plunder, gaining new territory, and proving manhood. Captives were treated differently depending on their gender: males experienced brutal torture, while women and children were often absorbed into the captors' communities.

The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, clearing land for farming until its fertility was exhausted. Once exhausted, they relocated and started the process again. This method allowed them to sustain their agricultural needs, but also contributed to deforestation and the expansion of their territory.

The Huron, like the Five Nations, had a thriving trade network. Their central position allowed them to connect with Algonquian groups to the north, exchanging goods like animal skins and fish for corn and fish nets.

Throughout the Great Lakes region, gender roles were distinct and often complimentary. Men primarily hunted, fished, built, cleared land, waged war, and filled political offices. Women, on the other hand, held dominion over the household, agricultural activities, and property inheritance.

Women's influence in Iroquian societies was significant. They played a crucial role in selecting chiefs, even removing them from office if they were deemed unfit. Despite this, decision-making power formally rested with men within the councils.

The Woodland/Subarctic peoples, primarily Algonquian and Dene/Athapaskan speakers, were nomadic hunters, gatherers, and fishers who followed the seasonal migration of game across their wide territories. Unlike the farmers of the Great Lakes region, they did not have permanent settlements.

Hunter-gatherer societies, like indigenous communities in the Woodland/Subarctic region, generally lacked the formal political structure of groups like the Huron and Iroquois. Leadership was informal and based on merit, typically the ability to provide for the group through hunting, fishing, and gathering.