Indian National Movement: 1870s to 1916

The Making of the Indian National Movement (1870's to 1916)

• Issues during the revolt of 1857 led to a crucial question: "What is this country of India and for whom is it meant?"
• The answer was that India was for all its people, regardless of class, colour, caste, creed, language, or gender and with the awareness that the British were exercising control over the resources of India and the lives of its people.
• Political associations formed after 1850, especially in the 1870s and 1880s, clearly stated this consciousness.
• These associations were led by English-educated professionals, such as lawyers.
• Notable associations: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, and the Bombay Presidency Association.

Formation of Indian National Congress

• Reasons for formation:
  • The role of educated Indians.
  • Controversial Acts like the Ilbert Bill, Vernacular Press and Arms Act.
  • National political consciousness emerged due to dissatisfaction with British rule.
  • The willingness to provide Indians with an organisation served like a Safety Valve.
  • Existing Indian organizations served as a precursor to Congress.
• The Indian National Congress was established in December 1885 in Bombay with 72 delegates from all over the country.
• Early leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, and Surendranath Banerji.
• A retired British official, A.O. Hume, played a role in bringing Indians from different regions together.

What was the Ilbert Bill Controversy?

• In 1883, Sir Ilbert introduced the Ilbert Bill, granting Indian judges the power to try cases involving Europeans.
• The European community opposed the bill, leading to its withdrawal by the government.
• The Indians viewed it as proof that they could not expect equality from the British government.

What was Arms Act?

• The Arms Act of 1878 restricted the possession and use of arms by Indians, while exempting Europeans.
• Indians needed a license to own or carry weapons, effectively disarming the population.
• Introduced by Lord Lytton, it aimed to prevent uprisings after the Revolt of 1857.
• Criticism: discriminatory and unjust, depriving Indians of self-defense rights.
• The law remained in place until repealed by the Indian Arms Act of 1959 after India gained independence.

What was Vernacular Press Act?

• The Vernacular Press Act was enacted to silence critics of the government in the same year as the Arms act.
• The government could confiscate assets of newspapers, including printing presses, if they published anything considered "objectionable."

Moderates (1885-1905)

• Early congressmen believed in constitutional methods, were humble in their criticism, and were thus known as the moderates.
• They sought to work within the system to gradually transform it.
• Methods: constitutional and peaceful, dialogue, and negotiations within existing structures for reforms.
• While seeking self-governance, they accepted constitutional reforms.
• Leaders: Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee.
• Advocacy: more diplomatic and conciliatory methods, seeking international support.

Main Demands of the Congress during 1885-1905

• Aimed at administrative and constitutional reforms.
• Wanted Legislative Councils to be more representative, with more power, and introduced in provinces without them.
• Advocated for more Indians in administration and higher posts.
• Demanded separation of the judiciary from the executive.
• Wanted to repeal the Arms Act and Vernacular Press Act for freedom of speech.
• Sought the reduction of military expenditure.
• Pushed for more funds for the agrarian economy and irrigation.

Beliefs and Ways of Struggle Against the British Rule

• Aware of the nature of British rule but wanted its reforms, not expulsion.
• Focus on public opinion: published newspapers, wrote articles, criticised British rule in speeches, and sent representatives to different parts of the country.
• Believed in constitutional means within the framework of the law, including passing resolutions, persuasion, sending petitions, and appeals.
• Believed in cooperation and reconciliation.
• Support: Intelligentsia and urban middle class; Narrow social base.
• They thought the British respected freedom and justice and would accept just demands.
• Indifference of the British, economic exploitation, and impoverishment made nationalists realise the British were not sincere, leading to the rise of extremists/radicals within the Congress.

Extremists / Radicals

• A section of congressmen who lost faith in the British Government drifted towards radicalism.
• Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai. They adopted a more assertive and radical stance.
• They believed British rule could only be opposed effectively through mass mobilization, civil disobedience, and armed resistance if necessary.
• Critical of the moderate approach as too patient and ineffective.
• Extremists were more assertive and militant to achieve their goals.
• They often sought complete independence and wanted a more aggressive stance.
• Extremists were less concerned with international opinion and more focused on direct action.
• They criticised the Moderates for their “politics of prayers", emphasized self-reliance, and constructive work.
• They argued that people must rely on their own strength and fight for swaraj.
• Tilak raised the slogan: “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!”

Ideological Basis of Extremism

• The nationalist idea behind the Revolt of 1857 was Swaraj.
• Attachment to rationalism and western ideals alienated moderates from the masses.
• Extremists drew inspiration from traditional cultural values.
• They were ardent nationalists who wanted equality and self-respect in international relations
• They opposed moderates who seemed servile to the British.
• Emancipation was more than politics, it was energising all aspects of life.
• They believed the struggle between ruler and ruled was inevitable arguing for building a new India without British contribution was the dream.

Difference Between Moderates and Extremists

Moderates

• Wanted administrative and constitutional reforms within British rule.
• Used peaceful and constitutional means like petitions, prayers, and protests.
• Had faith in British justice and fair play, seeking reforms rather than expulsion.
• Followed Petition, Prayer, and Protest (3Ps).
• Influenced by Western ideas of democracy, liberalism, and freedom.
• Believed in gradual self-reliance against British domination.
• Mostly urban elites, many with British education.
• Used Passive Resistance (prayer, petition, persuasion, and philanthropy).

Extremists

• Aimed for complete Swaraj (self-rule) and an end to British rule.
• Followed radical and aggressive methods like non-cooperation, Swadeshi, and boycotts.
• Believed British rule was tyrannical and must be completely removed.
• Advocated Swarajya, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education.
• Inspired by India's history, culture, and traditions.
• Used festivals like Ganapati and Shivaji Jayanti to awaken nationalism.
• Emphasized complete self-reliance and rejection of foreign rule.
• Mainly middle-class Indians who promoted cultural nationalism.
• Advocated militant resistance, including violent actions when needed.

Events from 1905 – 1916

• The years 1905 to 1919 marked a crucial phase with the rise of the Swadeshi Movement, All India Muslim League, and efforts towards Hindu-Muslim unity, and the Lucknow Pact of 1916.
• These events reflected the transition from moderate demands to more radical methods, setting the stage for mass political movements.

Partition of Bengal - 1905

• By 1905, nationalism was high.
• British Viceroy Lord Curzon announced the partition of Bengal.
• Division into two parts: East Bengal and Assam with a majority of Muslims and West Bengal for Bengali Hindus.
• The real intention of Lord Curzon was to divide and weaken the nationalist movement in Bengal by creating disunity.

Swadeshi Movement

• In protest, Indians started the Swadeshi Movement on 7 August 1905.
• Actions: boycott of British goods and promotion of national education. Later, swadeshi and boycott became fundamental principles of the Congress.
• The movement spread to all classes.
• The government adopted repressive measures.
• Processions and meetings were banned, and leaders were imprisoned.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was sentenced to six years of rigorous imprisonment.

Muslim League

• The British sowed seeds of communalism through the partition of Bengal.
• They encouraged Muslims to form a separate party and fight through separate electorates.
• Muslims were given the impression that they might lose their identity if they joined the Congress.
• In 1906, Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dacca and Prince Aga Khan founded the Muslim League.
• Objectives: to protect the interest of Muslims with an idea of forming a separate electorate.
  • To promote loyalty to the British government among Indian Muslims.
  • To protect the political rights of the Muslims of India.
  • To prevent the rise of hostility towards other communities.

Surat Split

• The Indian National Congress under the moderates condemned the partition of Bengal and wanted to lodge a formal protest.
• The radicals wanted to start boycott as the only alternative to stop the partition.
• The conflict between moderates and radicals increased during the Surat Session of the Indian National Congress in 1907.
• The radicals left the Congress in this session which came to be known as the Surat split.

Revolutionaries

• The repressive measures of the government led to revolutionary activities to expel British from India by force.
• Some revolutionaries: Ram Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjee, Sachindranath Sanyal, Bhagat Singh, and Chandra Shekhar Azad.
  • Motivated by intense love for the motherland.
  • Used violent means and engaged in killings to pressurise the government.
  • Propagated radical ideas through newspapers, books, and pamphlets.
• The government resorted to repression and passed laws to crush the revolutionary movement.
• The government largely succeeded in curbing the activities of the revolutionaries severely.

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

• One major step taken by the British to disunite Hindus and Muslims was the Indian Council Act of 1909, the Morley-Minto reforms.
• It sought to extend the number of members in the legislative councils and introduced separate electorate for the Muslims.
• Muslims could elect their own representatives.
• Congress leaders protested against this communal politics, a blow to national unity.

The Lucknow Pact of 1916

• Both the Congress and the Muslim League held sessions at Lucknow in 1916.
• They authorized their councils to negotiate to frame a joint scheme for self-government.
• The Congress accepted separate electorates.
• Both demanded self-governing institutions, known as the Lucknow Pact.
• It was an important step to Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Radicals and moderates were also reunited.

Home Rule League Movement

• The Home Rule Movement was started by Tilak and Annie Besant in 1916.
• The main aim was to demand swaraj or self-government for the Indians.
• The movement aroused nationalist feeling.
• Forced the government to bring in some administrative changes.

Emergence of Gandhi

Early Life

• Mohanadas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat.
• A lawyer, he went to South Africa in 1893 on a one-year contract but stayed till 1914.
• He fought racial discrimination against Indians and became their leader.
• He forged non-violent protest techniques known as Satyagraha.
• He dominated the Indian political scene from 1918 till India's independence in 1947, a period referred to as the Gandhian Era.

Techniques of Gandhi

Satyagraha

• Based on truth and non-violence.
• A Satyagrahi refuses to accept wrong and remains peaceful:
• He doesn't hate an evil-doer.
• For truth, he would accept sufferings himself to arouse the conscience of the wrongdoer.
• Must give up fear, hatred, and falsehood.

Non-violence

• Needed for individual freedom to succeed and thrive.
• Not a sign of cowardice.
• It is a positive and active force infinitely superior to brute force.
• Practicing non-violence must be prepared to sacrifice everything except honour.

Faith in the Masses

• Gandhi had faith in the power of the masses.
• He travelled, connected, and understood the people.
• Convinced of their ability to undertake non-violence and Satyagraha, he decided to launch mass movements.

Swadeshi

• Make every village of India self-supporting.
• Revival of the cottage industry would remove poverty.
• His spinning wheel was a symbol of regeneration.

Social Reform

• India should reform herself while asking for freedom.
• Campaigned for social acceptance of untouchables.
• Championed the cause of women.

Hindu-Muslim Unity

• Gandhi appealed for Hindu-Muslim unity to achieve independence.