Indian National Congress (1883-1911)

The Growth of Political Awareness and British Reform (1883-1927)

• This topic looks at the growth of political awareness and the reform of British rule from 1883 to c1927

The Growth of Political Awareness (1883-1911)

• This period saw the beginnings of representation for Hindus and Muslims

Indian National Congress

• Its early influence on the British and the British reaction to the growth of Indian radical nationalism is worth understanding
• By the end of the nineteenth century, many in India and Britain believed that Indians needed their own body to represent their views to the British
• In 1883, the Indian Association suggested forming such a body
• In the same year, a British Member of Parliament suggested that the Indians should set up their own national political association
• Allan Octavian Hume, a former member of the Indian Civil Service, wrote to all the graduates of Calcutta University, calling on them to take the lead in setting up a national organization
• Hume followed this up by setting up the Indian National Union with branches in several cities
• The British Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, supported Hume's work
• He said that the new organization would act as 'a safety valve for the escape of great and growing forces' within India
• On 28 December 1883, a conference of the Indian National Union was called in Bombay
• Simultaneously, a second conference was held in Calcutta
• These conferences were held under the name of the Indian National Congress
• The INC was keen not to offend Britain in its early stages
• The INC declared its loyalty to Queen Victoria, and stated that its ambition was only to widen the basis of government
• By the time that the Congress had its second meeting in 1886, there were 436 delegates
• The delegates were elected representatives of their provinces
• At this meeting, Congress stated its aim was to create a united organization and to promote the welfare of India and its people
• The aim of Congress was to educate the public in both India and Britain
  • Resolutions were printed in newspapers, and a British Committee of the Congress was formed
• The INC aimed to persuade the British government to end unfair practices
  • Aim was to address this need, the Indian Civil Service (ICS) called for more Indian representation
• Congress helped to persuade the British to introduce the Indian Councils Act of 1892, increasing the number of Indians in the councils
• The new bodies had very little power and were largely ignored and it wasn't long before the British began to ignore Congress too
• Lord Dufferin claimed that it represented just 'a microscopic minority' of Indian opinion
• In 1900, the new Viceroy, Lord Curzon, wrote that 'The Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my greatest ambitions is to assist it to a peaceful death'
• Most Congress members hoped that the British would increase the role of the native Indians
• This group believed that the British were fair-minded and that British rule had brought political stability, justice, and education, requiring only peaceful protest and persuasion
• Other Indians wanted things to move more quickly, and in the late nineteenth century, a form of radical nationalism began to develop
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Poona made impassioned speeches calling for 'freedom' for the Indian people
• In 1897, he was imprisoned for writing a provocative newspaper article
• During the late 1870s, many secret societies sprang up aimed at ridding India of the British
• In 1897, a British officer and his companion were assassinated
• British authorities were forced to take measures to clamp down, one of which was to partition Bengal

Muslim League Formation (1906)

• Consider its reason for formation particularly the Simla Delegation and the All India Muslim Educational Conference
• Muslims position improved with the partition
• Since 1867 the British had mistrusted the Muslims and had denied them proper education
• The Hindus had gained all the advantages and they had even tried to replace Urdu with Hindi
• Muslims finally had true recognition - a province in which they were the majority
• Millions of Muslims now had a way to escape from the oppression of Hindu rule

Partition of Bengal

• It incited Hindu protests and British reactions to them
• Bengal included Western Bengal with a population of 54 million (42 million Hindus and 12 million Muslims)
• It include East Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 million (12 million Hindus and 18 million Muslims)
• In 1903 Viceroy Curzon proposed that Bengal should be partitioned into West Bengal and East Bengal
• The eastern province would include Assam and three districts previously considered to be part of West Bengal, Dhaka, Chittagong and Mymensingh
• In 1905, the British partitioned Bengal as Curzon had suggested

Hindu View

• Hindus believed that the British had divided Bengal as part of their traditional divide and rule policy
• Hindus dominated Congress and believed that the British had tried to weaken Hindu unity by dividing Bengal and establishing East Bengal with a Muslim majority
• October 16 1905, the day the partition was put into effect, became a day of mourning
• Hindus then decided to introduce a boycott of British goods, and vowed to buy Indian produced goods instead
• This 'Swadeshi Movement' spread rapidly

British Reaction

• Steps were taken to deal with the Hindu protest
• Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings
• Between 1906 and 1908 editors were prosecuted and some were imprisoned
• In 1908, a Press Act gave the government even greater control on newspapers
• Tilak was arrested in June 1908 and sentenced to six years imprisonment
• Other radical leaders left India to avoid arrest
• Local prisons began to fill with those the British considered to be revolutionaries, with some suspects simply deported
• The British realized that using tough measures to crush the Hindus would not be sufficient
• A better approach would be to win the support of the moderate Hindus by making reforms
• Lord Minto was appointed Viceroy

The Simla Deputation

• Before the Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced, Morley decided to take advantage of improved relations with the Muslims, to win their support
• The Simla Deputation provided an ideal opportunity
• October 8 1906, Muslims led by the Aga Khan visited Viceroy Minto at Simla and requested that the position of Muslims in India 'should be estimated not merely on their numerical strength but in respect to the political importance of their community and the service it has rendered to the Empire
• Also requested that in all local and provincial elections, Muslims should have their own representatives, who would be elected only by Muslim voters, with a higher percentage of seats in the councils than their percentage of the population

First Attempts at Reform (1909-16)

• Early reform reasons and impact are worth understanding

Morley-Minto Reforms 1909

• These are also known as the Indian Councils Act
• Imperial Council was increased to 60 members by adding more 'non-official members'
• Central Executive Council was increased by adding 60 new members
• Council could discuss matters of importance and advise on government policies, including the budget
• Provincial Councils were also increased to 50 members in the larger provinces and 30 in smaller provinces
• Muslim representatives to the Councils were elected by a separate Muslim-only electorate

Reversal of the Partition of Bengal and of the First World War

• Consider its impact on relations between Hindus, Muslims, and the British
• 1911 showed the British could not be trusted to protect Muslim interests
• Lord Harding, the new Viceroy, agreed to reverse the Partition of Bengal
• Decision was announced at a Durbar in Delhi on 12 December by King George V
• The Muslims now realised just how vital it was that the Muslim League prospered if Muslims were to receive fair treatment in India
• The reversal of the Partition of Bengal had led to poor relations between the British and the Muslims
  • The Muslims saw the reversal of the Partition as a betrayal of British and that the original Partition was final
  • The Muslims soon realised that the Morley-Minto reforms did not provide Indians with any genuine voice in the government of their country
  • The Muslims now lost faith in the British to allow them any real political power
• In 1912-13, the British supported the Balkan states fighting against Turkey in the Balkan Wars
• The Muslim community in India saw this as a further example of how the British had no interest in protecting Muslim rights
• In January 1913, the Muslim League declared that its aim was 'a form of self-government suitable to India'

The Lucknow Pact

• This covered all reasons for and the importance of the pact, including co-operation between Hindus and Muslims
• By 1914, the failure of the British to grant more rights and the policy of repression, moved Congress and the Muslim League closer together
• In 1915, the two organisations held their annual sessions in Bombay and established joint councils to improve understanding
• In October 1916, the British let it be known that they were considering a series of proposals which would lead to at least half of the members of the Executive Council being elected, and the Legislative Council having a majority of elected members
• Congress agreed that Muslims had the right to separate electorates, Muslims should be given one third of the seats in the Councils, and no Act affecting a community should be passed unless three-quarters of that community's members on the council supported it
• This marked the first acceptance that partition would be necessary in any self-governing India with the rise in a belief that Home Rule (self-government) was a real possibility
• Two Home Rule League campaigned across India
• Annie Besant was imprisoned in June 1917, but she was released in August and elected Congress President
• In the same month E. S. Montagu announced in the British House of Commons that the British policy was 'an increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration' until India was ready to govern itself as part of the British Empire

Reform, Reaction, and Repression (1919-27)

• This period rejected dyarchy and look at British attempts to control opposition

The Rowlatt Act 1919

• Review the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms introduction, terms, and reactions to the reforms
• They had every intention of taking strong and effective action against any element in India which opposed British rule
• Committee was formed under Justice Rowlatt to investigate revolutionary activity in India
• April 1918 committe suggested definite growth within revolutionary activity in which should be dealt
  • Recommended that some of the emergency measures of the Defence of India Act should be retained permanently
  • This included arrest without warrant, detention without bail, and the right to order people where to live
• This appeared to go against trial by jury and safeguards against illegal imprisonment
• Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest
• Gandhi launched a hartal against the proposals and apri 1919 had strikes and demonstrations across India
• The Viceroy accepted the recommendations and the Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919

Amritsar Massacre

• All events and consequences as well as the Hunter Committee should be considered
• The British banned anti-government publications and public meetings
• Unrest continued and in early 1919 nationalist leaders, Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Kitchlew were deported without trial
• April 10, 1919 rioting started in Amritsar and two banks were attacked, killing five Europeans
• General Dyer restored order banning public meetings and estimated around 20,000 turned up for a peaceful demonstration at Jaliannwala Bagh in Amritsar
• As a result, Dyer stationed his troops at the entrances and fired on the unarmed crowd without warning
• Troops fired over 1600 rounds estimating to around 400 with 1200 injured
• As a consequence, men were flogged in public and made to crawl on hands and knees
• Hunter Committee was set up to investigate what Dyer had done in Amritsar
• Dyer was eventually removed from active service, but he received no further punishment
• Indian people were greatly insulted by the failure to punish Dyer.
• Gandhi stated that 'Cooperation in any shape or form with this satanic government is sinful'.

Non-Cooperation and the Growth of Communalism (1920-1927)

• This included the increase in the influence of Congress to the Delhi proposals 1927
• Indians had lost faith in their British rulers and joined Gandhi's Non-cooperation Movement
• As a result, British cloth was burned in huge amounts and the production of hand-spun and hand-woven Indian cloth encouraged
• During this time, teachers and students left English colleges and schools and set up their own institutions
• Some lawyers gave up their practices as part of a boycott of the English legal system
• Those who stood against the elections were largely were ignored with the Congress refusing to field candidates
• Widespread opposition saw a policy of imprisoning alleged trouble-makers, and the jails were filled with over 30,000 political prisoners
• The first non-cooperation campaign had failed to bring about swaraj and had also failed to save the Khalifa

The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924)

• This considers the significance of the Khilafat Movement in Pakistan history

Causes for Formation

• It came to protect the Caliph to protect Turkey and to protect anti-British sentiment
• Turkey was a Muslim country, and its ruler, the Sultan, was considered to be Khalifa, the head of the worldwide Islamic community

Events from 1919-22

• Those that occurred were the Hijrat, violence at Nilambur, and Chauri Chaura and Gandhi non-cooperation amongst others
• As a result, western dress and hairstyles dropped and the idea grew that disregard of the law of Islam by the British made India a dar-ul-harb (enemy territory)
• With this, in August 1920, 18,000 Muslims set off on a hijrat (migration) to Afghanistan
• They were refused entry and forcibly sent back
• The British introduced a policy of repression with by the end of 1921 having 30,000 political prisoners in India's jails

Reasons for Failure

• There were outbreaks of violence, Kemal Attaturk and the abolition of the Khilafat
• There was a lack of common aims between Hindus and Muslims