Indian Logic and Epistemology: Perception and Verbal Testimony

Indian Logic and Epistemology

Perception (Pratyakṣa)

• Direct and immediate experience of an object through senses
• Considered a reliable source of knowledge
• Two types:
  • Sensory perception (indriya-pratyakṣa): through senses (e.g. seeing, hearing)
  • Mental perception (manasa-pratyakṣa): through mind (e.g. introspection)

Verbal Testimony (Śabda)

• Knowledge acquired through words or language
• Includes scriptures, teachings of experts, and testimony of trustworthy individuals
• Considered a reliable source of knowledge, but only if the speaker is trustworthy and the statement is free from contradictions

Non-perception (Anupalabdhi)

• Knowledge acquired through the absence of perception
• E.g. knowing that there is no fire in a room because there is no smoke
• Considered a reliable source of knowledge, but only in certain contexts

Comparison (Upamāna)

• Knowledge acquired through comparison or analogy
• E.g. understanding an unfamiliar word by comparing it to a familiar one
• Considered a reliable source of knowledge, but only if the comparison is valid and relevant

Inference (Anumāna)

• Knowledge acquired through logical reasoning and deduction
• E.g. inferring the presence of fire because of smoke
• Considered a reliable source of knowledge, but only if the reasoning is sound and free from flaws

Note: These five sources of knowledge (perception, verbal testimony, non-perception, comparison, and inference) are commonly recognized in Indian logic and epistemology, particularly in the Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika schools.

Indian Logic and Epistemology

Sources of Knowledge

• Perception (Pratyakṣa)
  • Direct and immediate experience of an object through senses
  • Reliable source of knowledge
  • Two types:
    • Sensory perception (indriya-pratyakṣa): through senses (e.g. seeing, hearing)
    • Mental perception (manasa-pratyakṣa): through mind (e.g. introspection)

Verbal Testimony (Śabda)

• Knowledge acquired through words or language
• Includes scriptures, teachings of experts, and testimony of trustworthy individuals
• Reliable source of knowledge, but only if:
  • Speaker is trustworthy
  • Statement is free from contradictions

Non-perception (Anupalabdhi)

• Knowledge acquired through the absence of perception
• Example: knowing there is no fire in a room because there is no smoke
• Reliable source of knowledge, but only in certain contexts

Comparison (Upamāna)

• Knowledge acquired through comparison or analogy
• Example: understanding an unfamiliar word by comparing it to a familiar one
• Reliable source of knowledge, but only if:
  • Comparison is valid
  • Comparison is relevant

Inference (Anumāna)

• Knowledge acquired through logical reasoning and deduction
• Example: inferring the presence of fire because of smoke
• Reliable source of knowledge, but only if:
  • Reasoning is sound
  • Reasoning is free from flaws

Indian Logic and Epistemology

• Indian logic and epistemology recognize five valid means of knowledge (pramana)

Non-Perception (anupalabdhi)

• Absence of perception or failure to perceive something
• Two types: non-perception of what is perceptible and non-perception of what is not perceptible

Verbal Testimony (sabda)

• Knowledge obtained through words or language
• Two types: Vedic testimony (authoritative and infallible) and secular testimony (ordinary language and communication)

Perception (pratyaksha)

• Direct and immediate knowledge obtained through the senses
• Two types: sense perception (five senses) and mental perception (mind or introspection)

Inference (anumana)

• Knowledge obtained through reasoning and logical deduction
• Three types: purvavat (general principle or rule), sesavat (specific instance or example), and samanyatodrsta (universal principle or law)

Comparison (upamana)

• Knowledge obtained through analogy or similarity
• Involves identifying similarity between two things and inferring a conclusion

Learn about Indian Logic and Epistemology, focusing on Perception and Verbal Testimony, including sensory and mental perception, and knowledge acquired through words and language.