106 Questions
According to Harold Kelley's covariation model, what type of information do people use to validate their causal attributions?
Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
In the context of the text, what does distinctiveness refer to in Harold Kelley's covariation model?
Whether Sema laughed at any comedian or laughed hard at a specific one
What is the purpose of asking whether there is a consensus among those who saw Cem Yılmaz in the context of Kelley's covariation model?
To determine if others find Cem Yılmaz funny as well
Why is assessing the consistency of Sema's behavior important in Kelley's covariation model?
To determine if Sema laughed at Cem Yılmaz only on the last night or finds him funny in other situations as well
What aspect of nonverbal communication is greatly influenced by context and culture?
Eye contact
What is a possible meaning of a smile in nonverbal communication?
All of the above
Which type of communication conveys variations in speech other than the verbal content?
Paralanguage
What do multiple channels of communication help in forming?
Both a and b
Which aspect of nonverbal leakage indicates nervousness?
Body language
What characteristic is associated with people who are perceived as liars or who are instructed to tell lies?
All of the above
According to Kelley's discounting principle, when are people less likely to attribute an effect to one cause?
When there are multiple potential causes present
What is the fundamental attribution error?
Tendency to attribute others' behaviors to their dispositions rather than situations
In which scenario are people more likely to make situational attributions for others' behavior?
When they don't know the person well
What is the actor-observer effect?
Tendency to attribute external causes to others' behavior and internal causes to own behavior
What did the experiment by Harris and Jones (1967) find regarding people's attributions of others' behavior?
People overestimated the role of internal dispositions in others' behavior
According to attribution theory, what simplifying process do people use when assessing covariation along one factor?
Assessing distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency
According to the text, what did Darwin propose about facial expressions?
They convey the same emotional states in all cultures based on evolutionary theory
Which aspect of nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, gestures, and posture?
Body language
What is the main reason for the universality of emotional expressions, according to the evolutionary explanation?
To allow for effective communication and control of behavior
What is the term used to describe the distance between friends or intimates compared to strangers or those not attracted to them sexually?
Proxemics
Which type of nonverbal communication can convey dominance, sympathy, or liking, often unconsciously?
Visible nonverbal
What did Woodworth propose about emotions?
Emotions can be arranged on a continuum and people can distinguish emotions that are far apart on this continuum
Which nonverbal channel includes paralinguistic features such as tone of voice, pitch, and speaking rate?
Paralinguistic nonverbal
What is the term used to describe specific meanings conveyed through gestures and posture?
"Sign language"
According to the text, what is the function of obscene gestures?
They have well-known meanings and are a form of sign language
According to the text, what is an important function of emotional expressions and gestures?
Allow effective communication and control behavior among humans and other primates.
What did Woodworth propose about distinguishing emotions?
People can distinguish emotions that are far apart on a continuum, but not those that are close.
What is the term used to describe the study of the distance between individuals in different cultures?
Proxemics
What do research findings suggest about impressions of others?
Impressions may be inaccurate due to various evaluative and cognitive biases.
According to the text, which type of perceptions are relatively accurate?
Perception of observable behaviors
What influences our perceptions according to the text?
Personal preferences for specific personality dimensions
According to the text, what enhances accuracy in inferring internal traits from observable behavior?
Common trait definitions
What factor influences consensus about a target's attributes according to the text?
Situational information
What is the effect of empathy induction on accuracy according to the text?
It enhances accuracy
What hinders agreement according to the text?
Idiosyncratic trait definitions
How does cultural background influence accuracy in judging observable traits according to the text?
It significantly decreases accuracy
Why are predictions of future behavior often inaccurate according to the text?
Due to overconfidence
What do actors have that observers do not, leading them to give more situational reasons for their actions?
More historical knowledge about their behavior
What do observers rely on to attribute actor's behavior to dispositions?
Directly observable events
What weakens the actor-observer effect according to the text?
Empathy or feeling of similarity towards the person being observed
What do people overestimate, likely due to being around like-minded individuals or the salience of their own opinions?
Commonality of their own behavior and beliefs
What do people attribute success to according to the self-serving attributional bias?
Their own internal characteristics
What can self-serving bias lead to according to the text?
Increased attempts at related tasks and improved chances of success
Where do biases in causal attribution originate from according to the text?
Cognitive shortcuts and motivational needs
What is not explicitly discussed in the text regarding people's perceptions of others?
The accuracy of people's perceptions of others is not explicitly discussed in the text.
What does selfish consensus refer to in the context of the text?
People overestimating the commonality of their own behavior and beliefs.
What aspect do multiple channels of communication help in forming in relation to nonverbal leakage?
Variations in speech other than the verbal content.
What is distinctiveness in relation to Harold Kelley's covariation model?
It refers to how unique a person's behavior is across different situations.
According to Harold Kelley's covariation model, what type of information do people use to validate their tentative causal attributions?
Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
What weakens the actor-observer effect according to the text?
Perceptual salience
What do actors have that observers do not, leading them to give more situational reasons for their actions?
Access to internal states
What is the term used to describe specific meanings conveyed through gestures and posture?
Kinesics
What factor influences consensus about a target's attributes according to the text?
Consistency across situations
According to the text, what enhances accuracy in inferring internal traits from observable behavior?
Empathy induction
What aspect of nonverbal communication is greatly influenced by context and culture?
Paralinguistic features
What do research findings suggest about impressions of others?
Impressions may be inaccurate due to various biases
What is distinctiveness in relation to Harold Kelley's covariation model?
Behavior variation across different situations
Why are predictions of future behavior often inaccurate according to the text?
Overconfidence
What can self-serving bias lead to according to the text?
Inaccurate predictions of future behavior
What is the actor-observer effect?
'The tendency for actors to attribute their own behavior to situational factors and observers to attribute the actor's behavior to dispositional factors'
According to Kelley's discounting principle, when are people less likely to attribute an effect to one cause?
'When situational factors are strong'
What did Woodworth propose about emotions?
Distinguishing emotions is difficult.
What do multiple channels of communication help in forming?
Verbal content
What do people attribute success to according to the self-serving attributional bias?
Dispositional factors
What is the term used to describe the study of the distance between individuals in different cultures?
Proxemics
What factor influences consensus about a target's attributes according to the text?
Behavioral consistency
According to Kelley's discounting principle, when are people less likely to attribute an effect to one cause?
When there is high distinctiveness
What do multiple channels of communication help in forming?
Emotional connections
What hinders agreement according to the text?
Cultural background
What do actors have that observers do not, leading them to give more situational reasons for their actions?
Historical knowledge
What do observers rely on to attribute actor's behavior to dispositions?
Salience
Why are predictions of future behavior often inaccurate according to the text?
'Self-serving attributional bias'
What weakens the actor-observer effect according to the text?
'Empathy'
What do people attribute success to according to the self-serving attributional bias?
'Internal characteristics'
What is distinctiveness in relation to Harold Kelley's covariation model?
'Variation across situations'
What influences our perceptions according to the text?
Cognitive biases and shortcuts
What is the term used to describe the distance between friends or intimates compared to strangers or those not attracted to them sexually?
Intimate distance
What is the term used to describe specific meanings conveyed through gestures and posture?
Emblems
What do people attribute success to according to the self-serving attributional bias?
Internal factors
What is the actor-observer effect?
Tendency as an actor to attribute external or situational cause to our own behavior
According to the text, what did the experiment by Harris and Jones (1967) find regarding people's attributions of others' behavior?
People overestimated the role of internal dispositions in others' behavior
What did Woodworth propose about distinguishing emotions?
Distinguishing emotions is based on facial expressions and gestures
What aspect of nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, gestures, and posture?
Kinesics
What aspect of nonverbal communication is greatly influenced by context and culture?
Chronemics
According to Kelley's discounting principle, when are people less likely to attribute an effect to one cause?
When high distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency are present
What does selfish consensus refer to in the context of the text?
The tendency for individuals to believe that others agree with their own opinions
What is not explicitly discussed in the text regarding people's perceptions of others?
The predictability of future behavior based on observable traits
What did Woodworth propose about the arrangement of emotions?
Emotions can be arranged on a continuum, and people can distinguish emotions that are far apart on this continuum, but not those that are close.
What is the term used to describe the distance between friends or intimates compared to strangers or those not attracted to them sexually?
Proxemics
According to the text, what is the function of obscene gestures?
To convey well-known meanings and are a form of sign language.
Why are predictions of future behavior often inaccurate according to the text?
Due to overestimating, likely due to being around like-minded individuals.
What does selfish consensus refer to in the context of the text?
The tendency for people to attribute success to internal factors.
What is the actor-observer effect?
The tendency for observers to rely on actor's behavior to dispositions.
What do research findings suggest about impressions of others?
Research findings suggest that impressions of others are relatively accurate.
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency for people to attribute success to internal factors.
According to Darwin proposed about facial expressions?
Facial expressions convey the same emotional states in all cultures based on evolutionary theory.
What did the experiment by Harris and Jones (1967) find regarding people's attributions of others' behavior?
People attributed others' behavior based on their cultural background
Which of the following is NOT a factor influencing the meaning of gestures in nonverbal communication?
Eye contact
What can a smile convey in nonverbal communication, depending on the context?
Support, encouragement, and looking down on somebody
Why is assessing the consistency of behavior important in Kelley's covariation model?
To determine the distinctiveness of the behavior
In what scenario are people more likely to make situational attributions for others' behavior?
When multiple channels of communication are available
What is the term used to describe specific meanings conveyed through gestures and posture?
Kinesics
According to the text, what do research findings suggest about impressions of others?
Impressions are more accurate with access to all channels of communication
What is the fundamental attribution error?
Overestimating the influence of dispositional factors on others' behavior
Which type of nonverbal communication conveys variations in speech other than the verbal content?
Paralanguage
What does selfish consensus refer to in the context of the text?
The tendency to overestimate consensus about oneself
Study Notes
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Sema's behavior of laughing at comedians is attributed to herself, the comedian, or the context.
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Three tests for determining if comedian caused Sema's laughter: high distinctiveness, high consensus, and high consistency.
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People simplify attribution process by assessing covariation along one factor.
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Kelley's discounting principle: less likely to attribute effect to one cause if multiple potential causes are present.
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Fundamental attribution error: tendency to attribute others' behaviors to their dispositions rather than situations.
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Experiment by Harris and Jones (1967) found people overestimated role of internal dispositions in others' behavior.
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Attributions of dispositional qualities to others can be made spontaneously and without awareness.
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When minds are busy, less likely to reach correction phase and more likely to make dispositional attributions.
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More likely to make situational attributions for people we know well, expect contact in the future, when situational information is salient, or when we don't know person's motive.
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Actor-observer effect: as an actor, more likely to attribute external or situational cause to our own behavior.
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Experiment by Nisbett, Caputo, Lee, and Mareck (1972) found men made more internal attributions for their own behavior and external attributions for others' behavior.
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Actors and observers provide different explanations for the same events due to access to different information and perspectives.
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Actors have more historical knowledge about their behavior in various situations than observers, leading them to give more situational reasons for their actions and dispositional reasons for friends' actions.
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Observers rely on directly observable events and attribute actor's behavior to dispositions due to the actor's salience in their field of vision.
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The actor-observer effect is weakened when empathy or feeling of similarity towards the person being observed is present.
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People overestimate the commonality of their own behavior and beliefs, known as selfish consensus, likely due to being around like-minded individuals or the salience of their own opinions.
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People attribute success to their own internal characteristics and failure to external factors, a self-serving attributional bias.
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Self-serving bias can lead to increased attempts at related tasks and improved chances of success.
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Biases in causal attribution originate from cognitive shortcuts and motivational needs, such as efforts to maintain self-esteem or control perception of life events.
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The accuracy of people's perceptions of others is not explicitly discussed in the text.
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Humans have the ability to accurately perceive emotions of others through facial expressions, which is a universal phenomenon across cultures.
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Darwin proposed that facial expressions convey the same emotional states in all cultures based on evolutionary theory.
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Facial expressions such as raised eyebrows, tightened eyelids, parted lips, and closed eyes are consistent responses across cultures when experiencing pain.
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The evolutionary explanation for the universality of emotional expressions is that they allow for effective communication and control of behavior.
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Woodworth proposed that emotions can be arranged on a continuum and people can distinguish emotions that are far apart on this continuum, but not those that are close.
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Nonverbal communication is an important aspect of human interaction and can convey dominance, sympathy, or liking, often unconsciously.
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There are cultural differences in how emotions are communicated and people are more accurate at judging emotions expressed by members of their own culture.
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Communication occurs through three channels: verbal, visible nonverbal, and paralinguistic nonverbal.
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Body language, a part of the visible nonverbal channel, includes facial expressions, gestures, and posture, and can convey specific information or emotions.
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Friends and intimates stand closer to each other than strangers or those not attracted to them sexually, which can be a sign of interest or friendship.
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Gestures and posture convey information to others and can have specific meanings, such as "stop," "come," or "goodbye."
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Obscene gestures also have well-known meanings and are a form of sign language.
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Emotional expressions and gestures have evolved to allow effective communication and control behavior among humans and other primates.
Test your understanding of impression formation, evaluative and cognitive biases that impact our judgements of others. Explore how external attributes are perceived accurately while internal states may be inaccurately inferred.
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