Hyperplasia and Hormone-Related Growth Factors
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of BH3-only proteins in the ER membrane?

  • To detect the presence of misfolded proteins (correct)
  • To facilitate protein synthesis
  • To mediate the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis
  • To regulate ER stress

    • What is the consequence when the amount of misfolded proteins is too great to be corrected?

  • The cell undergoes autophagy
  • The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is induced (correct)
  • The cell becomes resistant to ER stress
  • The unfolded protein response is shut down

    • What is the purpose of the unfolded protein response?

  • To protect the cell from the harmful consequences of misfolded proteins (correct)
  • To trigger inflammation
  • To induce apoptosis in response to ER stress
  • To regulate protein synthesis

    • What is the term for the process by which the cell dies due to excessive ER stress?

    <p>Terminal unfolded protein response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the location of the sensors that detect misfolded proteins?

    <p>ER membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis in response to ER stress?

    <p>To induce cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of molecular oxygen in the process of energy generation?

    <p>To reduce molecular oxygen to generate water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the nutrient deficiency in the mitochondrial pathway?

    <p>Triggering of apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of enzymes in the process of energy generation?

    <p>To catalyze the reduction of molecular oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen?

    <p>Production of reactive oxygen species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of reactive oxygen species production?

    <p>Mitochondrial inner membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the sequential addition of four electrons to molecular oxygen?

    <p>Generation of water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the mitochondrial pathway in the process of energy generation?

    <p>To generate ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the underlying mechanism of the reduction of molecular oxygen?

    <p>Redox reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Greek origin of the term 'autophagy'?

    <p>Phagia, meaning to eat oneself</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of autophagy in cells?

    <p>To recycle cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of autophagic cells in H&E-stained sections?

    <p>Nuclear condensation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between autophagy and necrosis?

    <p>Autophagy is a form of self-eating, while necrosis is a form of cell lysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of cellular components in autophagic cells?

    <p>They are recycled to provide energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of autophagy on cellular ATP production?

    <p>Decreased ATP production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of lysosomes in autophagy?

    <p>To degrade cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the morphological appearance of autophagic cells?

    <p>Shrunken cells with condensed cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of excessive production or inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells?

    <p>Damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA, resulting in cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in cells?

    <p>To catalyze the dismutation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in cells?

    <p>Damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cellular injury?

    <p>ROS accumulation leads to cellular injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzymatic system is responsible for removing reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells?

    <p>Superoxide dismutase (SOD)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells?

    <p>Accumulation of free radicals, leading to cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can damage which of the following cellular components?

    <p>Lipids, proteins, and DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in toxin-mediated cell injury?

    <p>ROS accumulation leads to cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism underlying the development of hyperplasia?

    <p>Hormone-induced changes in cellular growth factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of hyperplasia in the breast tissue?

    <p>Induction of low-grade inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of growth factors in hyperplasia?

    <p>To promote cellular growth and proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following diseases is associated with hyperplasia?

    <p>Atherosclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of surviving cells after death or removal of some cells in an organ?

    <p>Compensatory hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of hormones in hyperplasia?

    <p>To promote cellular growth and proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of hyperplasia?

    <p>Increased cellular proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of increased growth factor production in hyperplasia?

    <p>Increased risk of cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mitochondrial pathway and death receptor pathway of apoptosis share the same induction mechanism.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    BH3-only proteins activate caspases directly.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The end result of both apoptosis pathways is the inhibition of cell growth.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    BCL-2 proteins maintain mitochondrial permeability.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Caspases are involved in the regulation of cell survival.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The death receptor pathway involves the activation of adaptor proteins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mitochondrial permeability is increased in the death receptor pathway.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytochrome c is released from the mitochondria in the death receptor pathway.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hypoxia and Ischemia lead to increased production of ATP in mitochondria.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the absence of oxygen, energy-dependent cellular systems fail due to increased ATP production.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytochrome P450 generates reactive oxygen species during phagocytosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Precision medicine uses gene expression to predict how a microbe responds to oxidative stress.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The sequential addition of four electrons to molecular oxygen leads to the formation of water.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species are produced in the mitochondrial pathway of energy generation.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary function of cytochrome P450 is to metabolize endogenous compounds.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phagocytosis is a process that occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Autophagy is a process of cellular injury that leads to cell death.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary consequence of inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species is cellular hypertrophy.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytochrome P450 is involved in the reduction of molecular oxygen to form water.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species can damage cellular components such as proteins, lipids, and DNA.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Superoxide dismutase is an enzyme that produces reactive oxygen species.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The goal of precision medicine is to use gene expression to predict the efficacy of antibiotics.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hyperplasia is a process of cellular differentiation that leads to tissue development.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phagocytosis is a process that occurs in the mitochondria.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deprivation of glucose and oxygen can increase the burden of environmental and microbial toxins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Many environmental and microbial toxins can directly damage cellular components.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytochrome P450 is responsible for converting toxins into reactive metabolites in liver cells.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Diseases caused by misfolded proteins are not associated with environmental toxins.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species can be produced through the sequential addition of four electrons to molecular oxygen.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mitochondrial dysfunction is not a consequence of environmental toxin exposure.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ER stress can induce apoptosis through the activation of p53.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Autophagy is a process of programmed cell death.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are primarily produced in the mitochondria.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The unfolded protein response can lead to cell death through the activation of caspases.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hyperplasia is a process of programmed cell death.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    BH3-only proteins are involved in the regulation of mitochondrial permeability.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is inhibited by BCL-2 proteins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    DNA damage can be repaired through the activation of p53.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of cellular injury resulting from abnormalities in one or more essential cellular components?

    <p>Disruption of cellular function and potential cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cellular components are primarily affected by cellular injury?

    <p>Mitochondria, membranes, and the nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of myeloperoxidase in cellular injury?

    <p>Conversion of hydrogen peroxide to a reactive oxygen species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of excessive production or inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells?

    <p>Cellular injury and potential cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzymatic system is responsible for removing reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells?

    <p>Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and other antioxidant enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism underlying the development of hyperplasia?

    <p>Increased cell growth and proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of reactive oxygen species in cells?

    <p>The incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of surviving cells after death or removal of some cells in an organ?

    <p>Hyperplasia or regeneration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of superoxide dismutase in cells?

    <p>To convert superoxide to hydrogen peroxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in toxin-mediated cell injury?

    <p>ROS can damage cellular components, leading to cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of excessive production or inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species?

    <p>Cellular injury and death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the sequential addition of four electrons to molecular oxygen?

    <p>The formation of water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism underlying the development of cellular injury?

    <p>Reactive oxygen species formation and accumulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of enzymes in the removal of reactive oxygen species?

    <p>To convert reactive oxygen species to less reactive compounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between cellular ATP production and reactive oxygen species?

    <p>Reactive oxygen species can disrupt cellular ATP production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species in cells?

    <p>Oxidative stress and cellular injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER?

    <p>The unfolded protein response is activated, leading to a reduction in protein synthesis and an increase in protein degradation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of molecular chaperones in the ER?

    <p>They help to prevent protein misfolding and facilitate protein folding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of ER stress on cellular aging?

    <p>It promotes cellular aging by inducing the unfolded protein response, which can lead to cellular senescence and apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do BH3-only proteins contribute to the unfolded protein response?

    <p>They activate the unfolded protein response by inducing the transcription of genes involved in protein degradation and folding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the inhibition of the unfolded protein response?

    <p>It can lead to the accumulation of misfolded proteins, ER stress, and cellular apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the mitochondrial pathway in the response to ER stress?

    <p>It is involved in the induction of apoptosis in response to ER stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the unfolded protein response impact cellular metabolism?

    <p>It can lead to a decrease in protein synthesis and an increase in protein degradation, resulting in a reduction in cellular metabolism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the activation of the unfolded protein response on cellular longevity?

    <p>It can promote cellular longevity by reducing the accumulation of misfolded proteins and promoting cellular proteostasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of patrologic adapters and oncogenic transformation in cells?

    <p>Responses to mutations and oncogenic transformation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to cellular components in autophagic cells?

    <p>They are broken down and recycled.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species in cells?

    <p>Cellular injury and damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of hormones in hyperplasia?

    <p>They stimulate cell growth and proliferation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of atrophy in cells?

    <p>Decrease in cell number and function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of mechanical stress on cells?

    <p>Activation of cellular responses and adaptation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of patological adaptations in cells?

    <p>Impaired cellular function and disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of excessive production of reactive oxygen species in cells?

    <p>Cellular injury and damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of ceramide in the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis?

    <p>Ceramide triggers the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria, leading to the activation of caspases and apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of excessive ER stress on cellular membranes?

    <p>Excessive ER stress leads to the disruption of cellular membranes, causing mitochondrial damage and triggering apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do BH3-only proteins contribute to the regulation of mitochondrial permeability?

    <p>BH3-only proteins trigger the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria, increasing mitochondrial permeability and leading to apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cellular injury?

    <p>ROS can damage cellular components, leading to cell injury and triggering apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do growth factors contribute to the development of hyperplasia?

    <p>Growth factors stimulate cell growth and proliferation, leading to the development of hyperplasia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of inadequate removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells?

    <p>Inadequate removal of ROS leads to cellular damage, triggering apoptosis and cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cellular membranes respond to ER stress?

    <p>Cellular membranes respond to ER stress by triggering apoptosis, which leads to the removal of damaged cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of autophagy in cellular homeostasis?

    <p>Autophagy plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by removing damaged cellular components and promoting cellular survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ necrosis factor receptor family is found on many cells.

    <p>tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ reticulum is involved in the process of cell death.

    <p>endoplasmic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Type I ______ receptor is a death receptor that mediates apoptosis.

    <p>TNF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    FAS is a ______ protein that is expressed on many cells.

    <p>membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ domain is a protein domain that is involved in cell death.

    <p>death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    FAS is a ______ that is involved in the process of apoptosis.

    <p>ligand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ receptor is a death receptor that is involved in apoptosis.

    <p>FAS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ pathway is a pathway of cell death that is mediated by death receptors.

    <p>death receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ROS are produced normally in small amounts in a __________ during the reduction-oxidation reactions.

    <p>cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of reduction-oxidation reactions occurs during __________ response and energy generation.

    <p>mitochondrial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the process of energy generation, molecular oxygen is __________ to generate water.

    <p>reduced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The addition of four electrons to molecular oxygen results in the formation of __________.

    <p>water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen results in the formation of __________.

    <p>reactive oxygen species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary site of __________ production is the mitochondria.

    <p>reactive oxygen species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The nutrient deficiency can trigger the __________ pathway of apoptosis.

    <p>mitochondrial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis can result in the death of a __________.

    <p>cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cell injury results from abnormalities in one or more essential ______ components.

    <p>cellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The major component of the cell affected by oxidative stress is the ______.

    <p>mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The enzyme responsible for converting a reactive compound into a reactive oxygen species is ______.

    <p>myeloperoxidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The consequence of impaired function of essential ______ components is inflammation.

    <p>cellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The presence of ______ in neutrophil granules is one reason for the consequences of oxidative stress.

    <p>oxidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the absence of oxygen, _______________ glycolysis increases, resulting in an increase in the production of lactic acid.

    <p>anaerobic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The damage caused by reactive oxygen species can lead to ______ of normal tissues.

    <p>disruption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _________________ phosphorylation is a process that generates ATP in the presence of oxygen.

    <p>Oxidative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of energy generation in the mitochondria involves the use of ______ oxygen.

    <p>molecular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) releases _______________ that detach from the ER, leading to reduced protein synthesis.

    <p>ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The absence of oxygen results in a decrease in the activity of many _______________ enzymes.

    <p>mitochondrial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The incomplete reduction of ______ oxygen can lead to the formation of reactive oxygen species.

    <p>molecular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The decrease in pH and the increase in lactic acid production are a consequence of the increased _______________ glycolysis.

    <p>anaerobic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the absence of oxygen, the energy-dependent cellular systems fail due to the decreased production of _______________.

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of energy generation in the mitochondria is dependent on the presence of _______________ oxygen.

    <p>molecular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The reduced activity of _______________ enzymes leads to a decrease in ATP production in the mitochondria.

    <p>mitochondrial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The functional and morphologic consequences of hypoxia and ischemia may release _______________ that cause more damage.

    <p>enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The production of ROS can cause _______________ peroxidation and membrane damage.

    <p>lipid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reperfusion can lead to the production of _______________ radicals.

    <p>hydroxyl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The conversion of H2O2 to H2O is done by _______________ peroxidase.

    <p>glutathione</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The removal of free radicals is done by _______________ dismutase.

    <p>superoxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary site of reactive oxygen species production is the _______________.

    <p>mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen can lead to the formation of _______________ oxygen species.

    <p>reactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary consequence of excessive production or inadequate removal of ROS is _______________ cellular injury.

    <p>cellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The role of superoxide dismutase is to remove _______________ oxygen species from cells.

    <p>reactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species can damage _______________ components in cells.

    <p>cellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reactive oxygen species with their corresponding effects:

    <p>Superoxide = Converted to hydrogen peroxide by superoxide dismutase Hydrogen peroxide = Spontaneously broken down into water and oxygen Oxygen = Primary site of reactive oxygen species production Reactive oxygen species = Can damage cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Reactive oxygen species = Species formed by the incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen Autophagy = Process by which cells die due to excessive ER stress Superoxide dismutase = Enzyme responsible for removing reactive oxygen species Hyperplasia = Increase in cell number due to increased growth factor production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their consequences:

    <p>Apoptosis = Inhibition of cell growth Autophagy = Increased cellular ATP production Hyperplasia = Increased growth factor production Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Cellular injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on ATP production:

    <p>Oxidative phosphorylation = Increases ATP production Anaerobic glycolysis = Decreases ATP production Autophagy = Increases ATP production ER stress = Decreases ATP production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their roles in response to ER stress:

    <p>Mitochondrial pathway = Induces apoptosis BH3-only proteins = Activates caspases Ribosomes = Decreases protein synthesis Lysosomes = Removes damaged proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their functions:

    <p>Superoxide dismutase = Converts superoxide to hydrogen peroxide Cytochrome P450 = Generates reactive oxygen species during phagocytosis Cytochrome c = Released from mitochondria in the death receptor pathway Molecular oxygen = Primary site of reactive oxygen species production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their effects:

    <p>Mitochondria = Primary site of reactive oxygen species production Lysosomes = Involved in autophagy ER = Site of protein folding and modification Cytosol = Site of protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their consequences on cellular components:

    <p>Autophagy = Recycles damaged cellular components Apoptosis = Leads to cell death Hyperplasia = Increases cell number Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Damages cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their consequences:

    <p>Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Cellular injury and death Autophagy = Removal of damaged cellular components Hyperplasia = Increased cell number and tissue mass Apoptosis = Programmed cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular pathways with their primary functions:

    <p>Mitochondrial pathway = Generates energy through oxidative phosphorylation Death receptor pathway = Induces apoptosis through caspase activation Unfolded protein response = Corrects protein misfolding Autophagic pathway = Recycles damaged cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their triggers:

    <p>Apoptosis = Excessive ER stress Autophagy = Nutrient deficiency Hyperplasia = Hormonal imbalance Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Mitochondrial dysfunction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their roles:

    <p>Superoxide dismutase = Removes reactive oxygen species Cytochrome P450 = Involved in xenobiotic metabolism Cytochrome c = Involved in electron transport chain Molecular oxygen = Primary acceptor of electrons in electron transport chain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their roles in cellular responses:

    <p>Superoxide dismutase = Removes reactive oxygen species Caspases = Activates apoptosis Ribosomes = Synthesizes proteins Lysosomes = Degrades damaged cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their underlying mechanisms:

    <p>Apoptosis = Caspase activation and mitochondrial permeability Autophagy = Lysosomal degradation of damaged cellular components Hyperplasia = Increased growth factor production and cell proliferation Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on cellular pH:

    <p>Anaerobic glycolysis = Decreases pH Oxidative phosphorylation = Maintains pH Autophagy = Increases pH ER stress = Decreases pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their outcomes:

    <p>Apoptosis = Cell death Autophagy = Cell survival Hyperplasia = Tissue growth Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Cellular injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their consequences:

    <p>Adaptive unfolded protein response = Reduced load of misfolded proteins Terminal unfolded protein response = Apoptosis ER stress = Increased synthesis of chaperones Mild ER stress = Activation of BH3 proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions:

    <p>Sensor of misfolded proteins = Detection of misfolded proteins in ER Chaperones = Assisting protein folding BH3 proteins = Activation of caspases Caspases = Induction of apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular pathways with their outcomes:

    <p>Mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis = Release of cytochrome c Death receptor pathway of apoptosis = Activation of adaptor proteins Unfolded protein response = Increased synthesis of chaperones ER stress response = Apoptosis or adaptation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular stressors with their consequences:

    <p>Excessive ER stress = Apoptosis Mild ER stress = Adaptive unfolded protein response Reactive oxygen species (ROS) = Cellular injury Hypoxia and Ischemia = Increased production of ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their characteristics:

    <p>Autophagy = Lysosomal degradation of cellular components Apoptosis = Programmed cell death Hyperplasia = Increased cell growth Cell injury = Disruption of cellular homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their triggers:

    <p>Unfolded protein response = Misfolded proteins in ER Apoptosis = Excessive ER stress or DNA damage Autophagy = Cellular starvation or stress Hyperplasia = Hormonal stimulation or growth factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their roles in ER stress:

    <p>ER lumen = Protein synthesis and folding ER membrane = Sensor of misfolded proteins Cytosol = Protein degradation and signaling Mitochondria = Energy generation and apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their outcomes:

    <p>Adaptive unfolded protein response = Cell survival Terminal unfolded protein response = Apoptosis Autophagy = Cell survival or death Hyperplasia = Tissue growth or cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular stressors with their consequences:

    <p>Reactive oxygen species (ROS) = Cellular injury or death Hypoxia and Ischemia = Cellular stress or death ER stress = Apoptosis or adaptation Mitochondrial dysfunction = Cellular energy crisis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their regulation:

    <p>Apoptosis = Regulation by BCL-2 proteins Autophagy = Regulation by mTOR signaling Hyperplasia = Regulation by growth factors and hormones Cell injury = Regulation by redox state and pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following physiological changes with their corresponding effects on cellular function:

    <p>Patologogic adaptations = Responses to mutations and oncogenic transformation Atrophy = Escape from injury but at the expense of normal function Hyperplasia = Increased growth factor production Mecchanical stress = Induces cancer development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their corresponding outcomes:

    <p>Autophagy = Increased ATP production Apoptosis = Cell death due to excessive ER stress Reactive oxygen species production = Damage to cellular components Hormone-induced hyperplasia = Tumor development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their corresponding functions:

    <p>Lysosomes = Removal of reactive oxygen species Mitochondria = Energy generation Endoplasmic reticulum = Detection of misfolded proteins Superoxide dismutase = Protection against oxidative stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their corresponding triggers:

    <p>ER stress = Misfolded protein accumulation Autophagy = Nutrient deficiency Apoptosis = DNA damage Hyperplasia = Hormone stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular pathways with their corresponding consequences:

    <p>Mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis = Cell death due to cytochrome c release Death receptor pathway = Caspase activation Unfolded protein response = Protein folding correction Reactive oxygen species production = Cellular injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their corresponding effects on tissue function:

    <p>Atrophy = Tissue shrinkage Hyperplasia = Tissue enlargement Autophagy = Cellular recycling Apoptosis = Tissue remodeling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their corresponding regulatory mechanisms:

    <p>Autophagy = Lysosomal regulation Apoptosis = Caspase activation Hyperplasia = Growth factor regulation Reactive oxygen species production = Antioxidant enzyme regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their corresponding underlying mechanisms:

    <p>Hyperplasia = Hormone-induced cell proliferation Atrophy = Decreased cellular growth Autophagy = Self-digestion of cellular components Reactive oxygen species production = Mitochondrial electron transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following statements with the correct consequence on telomeres:

    <p>Telomerase inactivation = Telomere shortening High levels of misfolded proteins = Increased demand for secretory proteins Reduced telomerase activity = Decreased capacity to correct misfolded proteins Increased enzyme activity = Increased reactive oxygen species production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their primary site:

    <p>Autophagy = Lysosomes Energy generation = Mitochondria Protein synthesis = Endoplasmic reticulum Telomere shortening = Nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following biological molecules with their primary function:

    <p>Superoxide dismutase (SOD) = Removing reactive oxygen species Telomerase = Lengthening telomeres Caspases = Regulating cell survival Insulin = Regulating blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular events with their primary consequence:

    <p>ER stress = Increased autophagy Hyperplasia = Increased growth factor production Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Cellular injury Telomere shortening = Cellular senescence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their primary role:

    <p>Lysosomes = Autophagic degradation Mitochondria = Energy generation Endoplasmic reticulum = Protein synthesis and folding Nucleus = DNA replication and transcription</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following biological processes with their primary consequence on cells:

    <p>Apoptosis = Programmed cell death Autophagy = Cellular recycling Hyperplasia = Increased cell growth Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Oxidative stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular events with their primary cause:

    <p>ER stress = Misfolded proteins Reactive oxygen species accumulation = Mitochondrial dysfunction Telomere shortening = Reduced telomerase activity Hyperplasia = Hormonal imbalance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following biological molecules with their primary location:

    <p>Telomerase = Telomeres Superoxide dismutase (SOD) = Mitochondria Caspases = Cytoplasm Insulin = Pancreas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Autophagy

    • Autophagy is a form of "self-eating" (Greek, phaga = to eat) where cells recycle their own organelles to provide energy for survival.
    • Autophagy is different from necrosis, and it is a type of programmed cell death.

    Morphological Appearance

    • In H&E-stained sections, the nucleus appears mature to provide energy for survival.
    • During autophagy, organelles condense, and the cells are shrunken, appearing in vacuoles.

    ROS and Cell Injury

    • ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) are produced normally in small amounts during reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions in mitochondria.
    • ROS can trigger apoptosis by the mitochondrial pathway if not corrected.
    • The production of ROS is increased by many injurious stimuli, and excessive production or inadequate removal leads to accumulation of free radicals in cells, causing cell injury.

    Unfolded Protein Response and Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress

    • The presence of misfolded proteins in the ER is detected by sensors in the ER membrane, triggering an adaptive unfolded protein response.
    • If the amount of misfolded proteins is too great to be corrected, the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is induced, and the irreparably damaged cell dies.

    Hyperplasia

    • Hyperplasia can be physiological or pathological and is characterized by an increased growth rate of cells.
    • Growth factors are produced by a variety of cell types, and some are produced by hormones.
    • Hyperplasia can be induced by various factors, such as insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), leading to increased DNA replication and cell proliferation.

    Mechanisms of Apoptosis

    • There are two pathways of apoptosis: the mitochondrial pathway and the death receptor pathway
    • Both pathways culminate in the activation of caspases, leading to cell death and fragmentation
    • In the mitochondrial pathway, BH3-only proteins sense a lack of survival signals or DNA damage and activate effector molecules, increasing mitochondrial permeability
    • This leads to the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol, activating caspases
    • In the death receptor pathway, signals from plasma membrane receptors lead to the assembly of adaptor proteins into a "death-inducing signaling complex", which activates caspases

    ROS Production and Its Effects

    • ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) are produced during phagocytosis in leukocytes, mainly neutrophils and macrophages, to destroy ingested microbes and other substances
    • ROS can affect many chemicals and enzymes, leading to oxidative damage and oxidative stress
    • Increased generation of ROS in coronary artery disease, a major cause of myocardial infarction, can lead to severe damage

    Hypoxia and Ischemia

    • Hypoxia leads to reduced generation of ATP and failure of energy-dependent cellular systems
    • Oxygen deficiency can lead to increased ROS production, damaging cellular components and leading to disease

    Cellular Damage and Apoptosis

    • Many environmental and microbial toxins can damage cellular components directly or after conversion to reactive metabolites
    • Damaged DNA activates p53, arresting cells in the G1 phase to allow for repair
    • If DNA damage is extensive, p53 triggers apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway

    Cell Injury and Death

    • Cell injury results from abnormalities in one or more essential cellular components, mainly mitochondria, membranes, and the nucleus.
    • The consequences of impairment of each of these cellular components are distinct but overlapping.
    • Mitochondria, whose function is to generate energy, can release factors that trigger cell death.
    • Mitochondrial dysfunction can lead to the release of cytochrome c, which activates the caspase cascade, a process that ultimately leads to cell death.
    • Cell membranes are composed of lipids and proteins, and their disruption can lead to cell injury.
    • The nucleus, which contains the cell's genetic material, is essential for cellular function and survival.

    Oxidative Stress and Cell Injury

    • Oxidative stress, which occurs when the amount of oxygen in the cell is partially reduced, can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide.
    • ROS can damage cellular components, including proteins, lipids, and DNA, leading to cell injury.
    • Superoxide dismutase is an enzyme that converts superoxide into hydrogen peroxide, which is then broken down into water and oxygen.
    • Oxidative stress can trigger cell death through the activation of pro-apoptotic pathways.

    Proteins and Cell Injury

    • Impaired protein function or misfolded proteins can accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), leading to ER stress.
    • ER stress can trigger the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is a pro-survival response that aims to restore protein homeostasis.
    • If the UPR is unsuccessful, it can trigger cell death through the activation of pro-apoptotic pathways.
    • Misfolded proteins can also accumulate in the cytosol, leading to the activation of proteolytic pathways that degrade the proteins.

    Aging and Cell Injury

    • Cellular aging is a process that contributes to the development of many degenerative, metabolic, and neoplastic disorders.
    • The process of aging is focused on the cosmetic and physical consequences of aging, but the real danger lies in the development of cellular aging.
    • Cellular aging is characterized by the accumulation of misfolded proteins, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction.
    • These changes can lead to the activation of pro-apoptotic pathways and cell death.

    Atrophy

    • Atrophy is a decrease in the number of cells and, therefore, may cause a loss of functional capacity.
    • Atrophy is caused by the reduction of cellular components, such as proteins, and can lead to cell death.
    • Physiological and pathological adaptations can occur in response to atrophy, which can lead to changes in cellular structure and function.

    Cell Injury and Cell Death

    • Cell injury can result from abnormalities in one or more essential cellular components, mainly mitochondria, membranes, and the nucleus.
    • Consequences of cell injury can be disparate, but overlapping, and can lead to cell death.

    TNF Receptors and Cell Death

    • TNF receptors are found on many cells and have a "death domain" that mediates interaction with other proteins.
    • The death domain is a conserved region in the intracellular part of the receptor that mediates the activation of downstream signaling pathways.
    • Activation of TNF receptors can trigger apoptosis and necrosis.

    FAS Receptors and Cell Death

    • FAS receptors are a type of death receptor that induces apoptosis when activated by FAS ligand (FASL).
    • FAS receptors are expressed on many cells, including activated T lymphocytes, and are involved in the regulation of immune responses.
    • Activation of FAS receptors can trigger apoptosis and necrosis.

    ROS and Cell Death

    • ROS (reactive oxygen species) are produced normally in small amounts during cellular metabolism, but can accumulate in response to cell injury or stress.
    • Excessive production of ROS can lead to oxidative stress, which can cause cell damage and death.
    • ROS can trigger apoptosis and necrosis by activating signaling pathways that promote cell death.

    Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Cell Death

    • Mitochondrial dysfunction can lead to cell death by impairing energy production and promoting the release of pro-apoptotic factors.
    • Mitochondrial dysfunction can be caused by various factors, including oxidative stress, DNA damage, and mutations in mitochondrial DNA.

    Anaerobic Glycolysis and Cell Death

    • Anaerobic glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the absence of oxygen, resulting in the production of ATP and lactic acid.
    • Increased anaerobic glycolysis can lead to acidification of the cell, decreased pH, and reduced activity of cellular enzymes.
    • Anaerobic glycolysis can contribute to cell death by promoting acidosis and reducing cellular energy production.

    Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Cell Death

    • Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress occurs when the ER is unable to properly fold and process proteins.
    • ER stress can trigger apoptosis and necrosis by activating signaling pathways that promote cell death.
    • ER stress can be caused by various factors, including oxidative stress, DNA damage, and mutations in genes involved in protein synthesis.

    Pathologic Effects of Cell Injury

    • Cell injury can lead to various pathologic effects, including inflammation, immune responses, and tissue damage.
    • The consequences of cell injury can depend on the type and severity of the injury, as well as the specific cellular components involved.

    Mechanisms of Cell Injury and Death

    • Cell injury occurs when oxygen is partially reduced, generating superoxides, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals.
    • Superoxides are converted to hydrogen peroxide spontaneously and by the action of the enzyme superoxide dismutase.
    • Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to anaerobic glycolysis, increasing lactic acid production, decreasing intracellular pH, and reducing cellular activities.

    Oxidative Phosphorylation

    • Oxidative phosphorylation is impaired, reducing ATP generation in the absence of oxygen.
    • Decreased intracellular pH and reduced activity of many intracellular enzymes occur as a result.

    Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis

    • Ribosomes detach from the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), leading to reduced protein synthesis.
    • Telomeres shorten, associated with decreased capacity to correct mistakes, leading to accumulating errors.

    ER Stress and Unfolded Protein Response

    • Mild ER stress leads to an adaptive response, increasing chaperone synthesis and protein degradation.
    • Severe ER stress leads to a terminal unfolded protein response, activating BH3 proteins and caspases, ultimately resulting in apoptosis.

    Cell Death

    • Atrophy is a decrease in cell number, potentially causing an escape from injury but at the expense of normal function.
    • Physiological and organ shrinkage can occur as a result.

    Cell Injury and Adaptation

    • Persistent pathological mediators, such as hormone-induced enlargement of breast tissue and hyperplasia, can lead to cell injury.
    • Mechanical stress, such as bone and muscle development, can also cause cell injury.
    • Pathological adaptations are responses to mutations and oncogenic transformations, allowing cells to modify their structure and function.

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