Human Tissue Study Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the intercellular matrix in tissues?

To separate and bind cells together (correct)

To initiate and transmit nerve impulses

To form the basement membrane

To facilitate muscle contraction

Which of the following best describes the study of tissues?

Anatomy

Histology (correct)

Physiology

Cytology

Which of the following is NOT a primary type of tissue found in the mammalian body?

Epithelial tissue

Connective tissue

Skeletal tissue (correct)

Nervous tissue

What is a key characteristic of epithelial tissues?

They consist almost entirely of cells with little extracellular materials. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of these describes what the basement membrane is?

A specialized extracellular material secreted by epithelia and connective tissue cells (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of muscular tissue?

To contract and bring about movement (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which tissue type includes blood, cartilage, and bone?

Connective tissue (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the primary function of the ileocecal valve?

To prevent the backflow of chyme from the large intestine into the small intestine. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What significant modification primarily increases the surface area for absorption in the small intestine?

The structure of the plicae circularis, villi and microvilli (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of nervous tissue in the body?

To transmit impulses from one part of the body to another (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the small intestine is primarily responsible for absorbing bile salts and vitamin B12?

The ileum (D) Signup and view all the answers

Where do the absorbed monosaccharides and amino acids enter after being absorbed in the small intestine?

Blood capillaries within the villi (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the lacteals found in the lamina propria of the small intestine?

To absorb and transport fats in the form of chylomicrons (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the large intestine is located immediately below the ileocecal valve?

The caecum (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the aortic semilunar valves?

To prevent backflow of blood into the relaxed ventricle. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT part of the systemic circulation?

Pulmonary veins. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the colon?

Absorption of water and electrolytes, and the formation of faeces (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the function of the appendix?

To play a role in resisting infection due to its abundance of lymphatic tissue (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which arteries directly supply blood to the cardiac muscles?

Coronary arteries. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which major vessel branches directly from the left ventricle and has semilunar valves?

Ascending aorta. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which set of arteries branches directly from the aortic arch?

Brachiocephalic, left subclavian, and left common carotid arteries. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is responsible for the initial breakdown of starch in the digestive system?

Salivary amylase (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of bile salts in lipid digestion?

To emulsify large lipid molecules into smaller droplets (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an endopeptidase that is initially secreted in an inactive form?

Trypsinogen (B) Signup and view all the answers

What end product is produced from the complete hydrolysis of maltose?

Two glucose molecules (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following enzymes is primarily responsible for acting on peptide linkages next to a carboxyl group?

Carboxypeptidase (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of colipase in lipid digestion?

To anchor lipase to the fat droplet (B) Signup and view all the answers

Where does most protein digestion occur?

Duodenum and jejunum (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of enterokinase in the digestive process?

To activate trypsinogen into trypsin (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which monosaccharides are produced by the hydrolysis of sucrose?

Glucose and fructose (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of blood plasma, excluding water?

90% water and 10% dissolved substances (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of the Bohr effect on oxygen delivery?

It slightly decreases oxygen loading in the lungs but increases oxygen unloading in the tissues. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the conditions under which the Bohr effect is most beneficial to oxygen delivery?

When blood pH decreases and carbon dioxide levels are high. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Where does the initial stage of glycolysis occur within a cell?

Cytoplasm (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is directly responsible for the conversion of glucose into glucose-6-phosphate?

Hexokinase (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule is directly oxidized by the coenzyme NAD during glycolysis?

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (B) Signup and view all the answers

What percentage range of lymphocytes in the blood, lymph nodes, and spleen are typically T lymphocytes?

65-85% (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which class of plasma proteins do antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, belong to?

Gamma globulin (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which immunoglobulin is primarily responsible for allergic symptoms in hypersensitivity reactions?

IgE (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process of active immunity?

The development of lymphocyte clones after exposure to antigens (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of vaccination or immunization programs?

To induce active immunity by introducing weakened pathogens (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the best description of passive immunity?

Immunity acquired by transfer of antibodies from one person to another (A) Signup and view all the answers

When does the ability to mount a specific immune response, or immunological competence, typically develop?

About one month after birth (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the tendons in the muscular system?

To connect muscles to bones at each end (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the 'origin' of a muscle?

The point of muscle attachment to the bone that is the most stationary. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How many extrinsic ocular muscles control the movement of the eyeball?

6 (C) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Human Anatomy and Physiology 1 - Summary of Syllabus

The syllabus covers the relationship between structure and physiology in mammals, including important bodily functions and processes.
It includes the study of cells, tissues, and their relationship to function in mammals.
The syllabus also covers the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, immune, and musculoskeletal systems.
Malfunctions associated with these systems are also part of the study.

Tissues - Definition and Classification

Tissues are collections of similar cells that perform a specific function in the structuring and operation of the body.
Histology is the study of tissues.
Tissue cells are bound together by a non-living intercellular matrix.
The intercellular matrix is secreted by the cells themselves.
The matrix composition varies between tissue types and can be liquid, semi-solid, or solid.
Blood, for instance, has a liquid matrix, enabling its flow within vessels.
Bone is an example of tissue with a solid matrix, providing structural support.

Tissue Classification

Tissues are classified into four main groups:
- Epithelial tissues: These tissues cover body surfaces, line body cavities and lumen cavities of organs, and form glands.
- Muscular tissues: Responsible for movement in the body by contracting.
- Connective tissues: These include blood, cartilage, bone, connective tissue proper, and associated products.
- Nervous tissues: Initiates and transmits impulses between different parts of the body

Epithelial Tissues - Characteristics and Examples

Epithelial tissues generally:
- Consist mostly of cells with limited extracellular material between them.
- Cover external and internal surfaces of the body, body cavities and vessels.
- Form glands (eg. salivary glands)
- Have a free surface not associated with other cells and a basal surface.
- The basal surface attaches to a basement membrane.
- Some epithelial tissues lack a free surface or a basement membrane. For example, endocrine gland cells do not have a free surface and do not rest on a basement membrane.
Specialized cell contacts (tight junctions and desmosomes) bind adjacent cells.
Blood vessels do not penetrate the basement membrane. Gases and nutrients diffuse from blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue to reach the epithelium.
In epithelia with multiple layers of cells, the metabolically active cells are close to the basement membrane; those further away from the basement membrane die.
Epithelia are avascular but usually innervated.
They retain mitotic ability to regenerate damaged or worn-off cells.
They are exposed to friction, and their surfaces wear off. They replenish themselves through mitosis.
They are also susceptible to harm from hostile environmental substances.
Classified based on the number of cell layers and the shape of the exposed surface cells.

Classification of Epithelium

Epithelium is classified into two main types: membranous and glandular.
Membranous epithelia line body surfaces, cavities, and lumina. They are specialized for protection and absorption. -One side of the membranous epithelium is exposed to a body surface, lumen, or the skin surface.
- Some are derived from ectoderm (outer layer of skin), others from mesoderm (e.g., lining of blood vessels), and still others come from endoderm (e.g., inner lining of the gastrointestinal tract).
Membranous epithelia are avascular and nourished by diffusion from underlying connective tissues. Cells are tightly packed with scant intercellular matrix between them.
Different epithelial function.
Cover or line surfaces for protection from pathogens, absorption of digested products, and filtration (e.g., in the kidney).
Specialized structures like those in the air sacs of the lungs facilitate diffusion.
Neuro-epithelial cells respond to chemical molecules and act as chemoreceptors in taste buds and the nasal regions.
Types of membranous epithelium are classified by the number of layers of cells and the shape of cells on the exposed surface.

Simple Epithelium

Simple epithelium is composed of flattened or irregularly shaped cells tightly bound together.
Each cell contains an oval, centrally located nucleus.
Cells range from thin, flattened cells to columnar depending on function.
Cells may exhibit surface specializations like cilia and microvilli.
Simple squamous epithelium: Flattened, scale-like, irregular cells with a central nucleus. Adapted for diffusion and filtration and absorption. Found in air sacs, parts of the kidney, and the lining of blood vessels (endothelium), and lining body cavities (mesothelium).
Simple cuboidal epithelium: Composed of tightly fitted hexagonal cells (as tall as they are wide). Some have cilia and microvilli. Found in small ducts and tubules with excretory, secretory, or absorptive functions (e.g., ovaries, terminal bronchioles, smallest ducts of kidney tubules).
Simple columnar epithelium: Composed of tall columnar cells, height varies depending on location/function. Some have cilia or microvilli. Found in areas involved in secretion or absorption (e.g., digestive tract, bronchioles).
Simple ciliated columnar epithelium: Characterized by cilia on the free surface. Aids in transporting substances via wave-like movements. Found in uterine tubes.
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium: Single layer of cells attached to the basement membrane, but some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface of the epithelium. Appears stratified due to varying cell heights. Commonly found in respiratory epithelium; functions in mucus and fluid movement.

Stratified Epithelium

These tissues consist of two or more layers of cells.
They regenerate from below (the basal cells divide and push newly formed cells upward to replace older cells).
They are more durable than simple epithelia.
They are poorly suited for absorption & secretion due to their thickness, but perform protective functions.
Classification is based on the shape of the surface layer of cells (which are in contact with the basement membrane.
Stratified squamous epithelium: Composed of multiple layers of cells, with surface cells being squamous. Deeper layers can be columnar or cuboidal. Mitosis occurs only in the deepest layer. This type is categorized as keratinized or non-keratinized.
- Keratinized: Forms the epidermis of the skin; provides protection against abrasion, desiccation, and bacterial invasion.
- Non-keratinized: Forms the mucosa of the mouth, throat, and other areas; provides protection against abrasion but not fluid loss.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium: Found in sweat glands, salivary or some larger ducts. • Stratified columnar epithelium: Found in some parts of the larynx, the male urethra. • Transitional epithelium: Unique stratified epithelium that lines urinary bladder and ureters. Highly adaptive to permit tissue distension (stretching). Basal cells appear columnar or cuboidal, but the surface cells flatten when stretched.

Body Membranes

These are thin epithelial layers that cover, separate, and support visceral organs and line body cavities.
Two basic types: mucous and serous membranes.
Mucous membranes: Line body cavities and tubes that open to the exterior (e.g., nasal and oral cavities, respiratory, urinary, and digestive tracts). Secrete mucus, which lubricates and protects.
Serous membranes: Line the thoracic and abdominal cavities and cover visceral organs. Secrete serous fluid, a watery lubricant, reducing friction.
- Types of serous membranes:
  - Pleurae: Associated with the lungs.
  - Pericardium: Associated with the heart.
  - Peritoneum: Associated with the abdominal cavity. Visceral (adheres to the outer surface of organ) & Parietal (lines the cavity).

Glandular Epithelium

Specialized tissues in the body with secretory functions.
Glands are made of epithelium supported by connective tissue.
Exocrine glands: Glands with ducts; ducts are lined with epithelium. These secrete their products into ducts that open onto a surface. Examples include sweat glands and salivary glands
Endocrine glands: Glands without ducts. They secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Examples include thyroid glands and pituitary glands
Classification of exocrine glands is based on the shape of their secretory units (alveoli or acini) and the branching pattern of their ducts (simple or compound).
Unicellular glands: Consist of a single cell e.g. Goblet cells in the respiratory and digestive systems. These cells secrete mucus. • Multicellular glands: Composed of many cells. • Merocrine glands: Secrete products via exocytosis without loss of cellular material e.g. most salivary and sweat glands. • Apocrine glands: Secrete products with some cellular material pinched off; mammary glands. • Holocrine glands: Secrete products by rupturing entire cells, e.g., sebaceous glands

Connective Tissues

Tissues comprised of cells separated by a non-living extracellular matrix.
Exceptionally vascular, and with the exception of mature cartilage, well nourished.
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is largely responsible for connective tissue function. Types of connective tissue cells ending in “-cytes” maintain, and “-clasts” break the matrix down. Fibroblasts provide fibrous components.
Classifications include embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme) and connective tissue proper. The matrix has three components: protein fibers (collagen, reticular, elastic), ground substance, and fluid.
- Collagen fibers: Very strong and flexible but relatively inelastic.
- Reticular fibers: Fine collagenous fibers forming a network.
- Elastic fibers: Elastic protein that can return to its original shape after being stretched.
Embryonic connective tissues: Mesenchyme: Undifferentiated cells in masses of homogenous jelly-like matrix; the origin of connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: Has 6 types, including:
- Loose (Areolar) connective tissue: A binding and packing material that joins tissues and organs, supporting skin, and surrounding blood vessels. Contains mast cells that produce heparin (anticoagulant) and histamine (e.g. vasodilator).
- Dense regular connective tissue: Composed primarily of collagenous fibers; forms tendons & ligaments (muscle-bone, bone-bone connections).
- Dense irregular connective tissue: Densely packed collagen fibers; interwoven to provide tensile strength (in skin, joint capsules).
- Elastic connective tissue: Predominantly elastic fibers; found in walls of large arteries, some lung tissues.
- Reticular connective tissue: Network of reticular fibers. Supports parts like liver, spleen, lymph nodes.
- Adipose tissue: Specialized connective tissue with fat cells (adipocytes) for energy storage, insulation & cushioning.
Cartilage tissues: Supportive connective tissues found between bones at joints (e.g., hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage), and providing support to structures like the trachea. They consist of chondrocytes within a firm, semi-solid matrix and lack significant blood vessels.
- Hyaline cartilage: The most widespread type of cartilage; most common type in the body; covers bone surfaces in joints, found in the nose, trachea, and larynx.
- Fibrocartilage: Contains a matrix densely strengthened with collagen fibers. Adapted to withstand tension & compression; found at the pubic symphysis and between vertebrae (e.g., intervertebral discs).
- Elastic cartilage: Similar to hyaline cartilage except for the presence of elastic fibers, making it flexible, e.g., outer ear, epiglottis, parts of the larynx.
Bone tissue (osseous connective tissue): The most rigid connective tissue. Contains a rich vascular supply and significant metabolic activity. Hardness is due to calcium phosphate deposits within the matrix, and collagen fibers give flexibility. - Compact bone: The hard outer layer. - Spongy (cancellous) bone: Porous, highly vascularized inner layer. - Osteocytes occupy cavities called lacunae.

Blood

Blood is a fluid connective tissue; it plays a crucial role in maintaining internal homeostasis.
It transports oxygen and carbon dioxide, hormones, nutrients, and waste products. Protects the body from infections and regulates temperature
Plasma: Straw-colored fluid (mostly water); dissolved substances like ions, proteins, hormones, waste products, gases, & enzymes.
45% formed elements,
- Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): Flattened, biconcave disks; transport oxygen via hemoglobin. Contain a nucleus at maturation. Life Span ~ 120 days; recycled in spleen & liver.
- Leukocytes (White Blood Cells): Amoeboid shape; involved in defense against pathogens. Divided into granular (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranular (lymphocytes, monocytes) types.
- Platelets (Thrombocytes): Cell fragments involved in blood clotting. Lacks a nucleus, small in size.

Muscular Tissues

Muscle tissues are primarily responsible for movement in the body.
Cells are elongated in the direction of movement; grouped according to structure (with or without striations) and functional mechanism (voluntary or involuntary)
Skeletal muscle: Striated, voluntary muscle attached to bones, facilitates voluntary movements. Elongated multinucleated fibers with transverse striations.
Smooth muscle: Non-striated, involuntary muscle found in walls of internal organs (e.g., digestive tract, blood vessels): Enables involuntary movements. Spindle-shaped cells with a single centralized nucleus.
Cardiac muscle: Striated, involuntary muscle found only in the heart. Cylindrical, branching cells with a single, centralized nucleus; electrically connected through intercalated discs; enables rhythmic contractions for pumping blood.

Nervous Tissue

Composed of neurons (initiate, transmit impulses), and neuroglia (support, bind neurons). Neurons consist of a cell body (contains the nucleus), dendrites (receive stimuli), and axon (transmits impulses).
Neuroglia supports neurons, providing nutrition, protection against infectious agents, & insulation.
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Characterized by having electrical signals that transmit impulses. Neuroglia is also high in abundance, as many neuroglia types to every one type of cell.

Digestive System

The digestive system prepares food for cellular utilization via four main processes: • Motility: Movement of food through the digestive tract (e.g., ingestion, mastication, swallowing, peristalsis) • Secretion: Both exocrine (secrete into ducts: water, HCl, HCO3-, many enzymes into the GIT e.g., stomach secretions include 2-3 litres of gastric juice daily) and endocrine (secretions into blood; hormones produced by stomach and intestines help regulate digestive system) secretions. • Digestion: Breakdown of complex food molecules (into absorbable units). • Absorption: Passage of digested food molecules into blood or lymph.
The system is composed of a tubular GIT (alimentary canal -oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) and accessory digestive organs (teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas).

Layers of the GIT

The GIT from the stomach to the anal canal has four layers (tunics) • Mucosa: Absorbs and secretes. Contains simple columnar epithelium, goblet cells (secrete mucus), and lamina propria (connective tissue with lymph nodules). Below lamina propria is smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae). • Submucosa: Thick, highly vascular connective tissue; absorbs digested molecules and contains glands and nerve plexuses (Meissner's plexus). • Muscularis: Two layers of smooth muscle (inner circular layer, outer longitudinal layer). Responsible for segmental contractions and peristaltic movement. Myenteric (Auerbach's) plexus innervates muscularis. • Serosa/Adventitia: Outermost layer that provides protection and binding; consists of loose connective tissue covered by simple squamous epithelium, and is the visceral peritoneum of the abdominal cavity. (Contains sympathetic & parasympathetic fibers from the ANS.)

Mouth, Pharynx, and Associated Structures

Mouth: Cheeks, lips, hard and soft palate, tongue. Mechanical digestion of food (mastication) begins, initiates bolus formation. Lined with non-keratinized
Pharynx Common passageway for respiratory and digestive systems; has three regions: nasopharynx (respiratory), oropharynx (digestive + respiratory), laryngopharynx (digestive). Composed of skeletal muscle and mucosa; has tonsils.
Tongue: Aids in mastication and swallowing. Contains taste buds for taste sensation (Filiform, Fungiform, Vallate papillae). Has extrinsic (genioglossus, styloglossus, hyoglossus) and intrinsic muscles.

Salivary Glands

Accessory organs that produce saliva; helps with food digestion & taste.
Three pairs are parotid, submandibular, sublingual; all located outside the oral cavity. Function is to produce saliva, which cleanses the teeth & dissolves food molecules for taste.
Saliva has enzymes and mucous cells.
Innervation & stimulated secretion (sympathetic, parasympathetic).

Respiration

Respiration involves: ventilation (breathing), gas exchange (air ↔ blood & blood ↔ tissue), oxygen utilization by the tissues (respiration).
The respiratory system has organs like the nose (with nasal cavity - external portion is visible from the face & internal nasal cavity is the pathway for air; warms & filters the air), Pharynx (nasal/oral/laryngeal portions), Larynx (voice box), Trachea (windpipe), Bronchial Tree/bronchioles (branches), & Lungs. The lungs are associated organs, & gas exchange occurs in the alveoli.
Breathing has inhalation & exhalation phases. Inhalation: Thoracic cavity volume increases by muscle contractions (Diaphragm contracts), creating a lower pressure relative to atmospheric pressure → Air rushes in.
Exhalation: Thoracic cavity volume decreases (internal intercostal & abdominal muscles contract), creating higher pressure relative to atmospheric pressure → Air is forced out.

Musculoskeletal System

The skeletal and muscular system interact and work together to enable movement.
Skeletal muscles: Groups of muscles involved in movement of limbs; they work in pairs- contracting one muscle causes the other to relax- & attach on each end to bones..
Skeletal muscles components:
- Tendons (tough connective tissue) joining muscle-bone connections.
- Insertion (bone end undergoing movement), Origin (stationary end)..
Major muscle groups:
- Head and neck: Ocular muscles (6 extrinsic ocular muscles -superior, inferior, lateral, medial rectus muscles, & superior, inferior oblique muscles), Mastication muscles (temporalis, masseter, pterygoid), Neck muscles (sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, splenius capitus)
Thorax: Intercostal muscles for breathing (external, internal), diaphragm (major movement in quiet breathing)
Appendicular Skeleton: Pectoral Girdle (trapezius, levator scapulae, rhomboideus, serratus anterior, pectoralis minor, subclavius), Arm (deltoid, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres major, teres minor), Forearm (flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor carpi ulnaris, superficial/deep digital flexor, flexor pollicis longus), Lower Limb (thigh, hamstring groups-semitendinosus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, gluteus maximus, medius, minimus, tensor fasciae latae), Leg (gastrocnemius, soleus, peroneus), Foot (intrinsic foot muscles)..

Immune System

A complex network of mechanisms & anatomical components protecting the body from pathogens.
Non-specific/innate mechanisms:
Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes) protect the body.
Chemical barriers (e.g., gastric acid kill pathogens).
Phagocytes (neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages) engulf and destroy pathogens.
Specific/adaptive mechanisms:
Lymphocytes (T & B lymphocytes) target specific pathogens & act in response to infection.
Antibodies (immunoglobulins IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE) bind to specific pathogens to disable or eliminate them.
The ability to mount a specific immune response (immunological competence) develops only after about one month of birth. The fetus does not immunologically reject the mother. Immunization programs are used for vaccination which stimulate active immunity that offers protection against future infections for some diseases. Passive immunity involves transfers antibodies - mother to fetus, & or another person e.g. after immunizations.

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