88 Questions
What is the process that involves the generation of layers of cells to define the ultimate axes of development?
Gastrulation
Which process gives rise to the entire nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord?
Neurulation
What is the stage that involves the proliferation of neural cells and occurs in the embryo?
Neurogenesis
Which stage follows neurogenesis and is responsible for establishing distinct cell populations?
Cell migration
What is the term for the generation of neurons from undifferentiated cells (stem cells)?
Neurogenesis
Which process involves the molecular signals specifying the final position and type for precursor cells?
Neural induction
Which part of the brain is involved in recognizing the need for movement and selecting a program for movement?
Basal ganglia
What is the corticospinal pathway primarily responsible for?
Sending signals for voluntary movement
Which factor is NOT involved in constraining movement?
Environment
What does neuroplasticity primarily involve at the genetic level?
Regenerative synaptogenesis
In healthy adults, what can lead to changes in cortical maps at the systems level?
Neuroplasticity
What is responsible for the brain's ability to develop new functions in response to sensory input and motor demands?
Cortical areas
What is the role of critical periods in neural circuit modification?
They are crucial for neural circuit modification
What is the consequence of disruptions in neural induction and differentiation?
Congenital conditions such as spina bifida and fetal alcohol syndrome
What is the function of the cerebellum in motor control?
Fine-tuning and planning movement
How does myelination change as individuals age?
Increases into late teens and early twenties
What is the impact of defects in neural processes?
Result in congenital neurological syndromes and developmental disorders
What underpins variations in personality, ability, and behavior?
Modification of neural circuits
What is neuroplasticity?
The brain's ability to reorganize itself in response to changes or damage
What can neuroplastic changes involve?
Activation of secondary or allied brain areas to compensate for lesions
Where does limited neurogenesis occur in adult human brains?
Olfactory bulbs and hippocampus
What is required to induce lasting changes in plasticity?
Sufficient repetition and intensity in training
What dictates the nature of plasticity in training?
Specificity
What plays roles in neural adaptation and plasticity?
Age, motivation, and engagement
What are crucial factors in human growth and development?
Genetics and environment
Which theory emphasizes the importance of forming emotional attachments to caregivers for survival?
Attachment theory
What is linked to higher self-esteem, social skills, and empathy in children?
Secure attachment
What can alter physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development?
Adverse childhood experiences
What is crucial in shaping human growth and development?
Caregiving continuity, quality, and opportunity
What can lead to neurobiological changes affecting memory, processing, and stress regulation?
Trauma
What is motor learning primarily concerned with?
Acquisition and modification of movement skills
Which of the following best describes the nature of motor learning?
Involves new strategies for sensing and moving
What type of learning involves a decrease in responsiveness to repetitive single stimulus?
Habituation
What results from experience or practice and produces relatively permanent changes?
Motor learning
What are outcome measures used for in the context of motor learning?
To measure improvement
In what context is habituation used to decrease the sensation of dizziness?
Vestibular disorders
What does motor learning primarily emerge from?
Perception-cognition-action process
What is the primary goal of motor learning in rehabilitation?
Acquisition and re-acquisition of movement skills lost through injury
What is the key characteristic of the changes produced by motor learning?
Relatively permanent changes
What is the process of acquiring capability for skilled action primarily based on?
Experience and practice
What type of learning leads to automaticity and habits?
Procedural learning
Which theory of motor learning involves possible stages of cognitive, associative, and autonomous learning?
None of the above
What are the practical applications of motor learning?
All of the above
What does postural control involve?
All of the above
Which systems are required for postural control?
All of the above
What sends signals to the CNS for making necessary postural adjustments?
Afferent neurons
What does the cerebellum anticipate and coordinate?
Postural adjustments
What is postural sway described as?
Mediolateral or anterior-posterior
What does recovery of function post-injury involve considering?
All of the above
What type of learning involves consciously recallable knowledge?
Declarative learning
What are the components of postural control according to the text?
Sensory systems, neuromuscular synergies, and action systems
What allows the body to foresee and prepare for changes in posture?
Anticipatory mechanisms
Which part of the brain is involved in planning and execution in postural control?
Frontal cortex and motor cortex
What is responsible for coordinating muscle response synergies in postural control?
Brainstem and spinal networks
What is the primary focus of ideal alignment in standing?
Using the least amount of energy or muscle contraction for energy efficiency
What type of control do postural responses involve?
Feedback and feedforward (anticipatory) control
What do muscle spindles constantly monitor in postural adjustments?
The length of muscle fibers
What is involved in the coordination of muscle response synergies in postural control?
Brainstem and spinal networks
What is the role of muscle synergies in postural control?
Specific muscle activation sequences in response to perturbations
What contributes to the adaptation of the body to changing environments in maintaining upright posture?
Developing more efficient strategies
What is the nature of motor learning?
It involves new strategies for sensing and moving, emerging from the interaction of the individual with the task and environment.
What is non-associative learning in the context of motor learning?
It involves habituation, leading to a decrease in responsiveness to repetitive single stimuli.
What is the primary outcome of motor learning?
Relatively permanent changes in capability for skilled action.
How is motor learning measured?
Outcome measures are used to infer improvement, as it cannot be measured directly.
What is the primary role of the frontal cortex in postural control?
Planning
What is the main function of muscle spindles in postural adjustments?
Monitoring muscle fiber length
Which component of postural control involves stability limits that change according to the task and individual characteristics?
Stability limits
What does higher level planning in postural control involve?
Frontal cortex
What is the role of muscle synergies in postural control?
Coordinating muscle response synergies
Which system is primarily responsible for coordinating muscle response synergies in postural control?
Brainstem
What is the primary function of the motor cortex in postural control?
Execution
What contributes to the adaptation of the body to changing environments in maintaining upright posture?
Neuromuscular synergies
What is the primary role of the brainstem in postural control?
Coordinating muscle response synergies
What is the primary role of the cerebellum in postural control?
Coordinating muscle response synergies
What is the primary function of sensory systems in postural control?
Providing input for balance
What is the primary role of the spinal networks in postural control?
Coordinating muscle response synergies
What type of learning leads to automaticity and habits?
Procedural learning
Which theory of motor learning involves possible stages of cognitive, associative, and autonomous learning?
Ecological theory
What are the practical applications of motor learning?
Transfer of learning to new tasks/environments
What does postural control involve?
Maintaining equilibrium at rest or in motion
What systems are required for postural control?
Proprioception, vision, and vestibular cochlear systems
What sends signals to the CNS for making necessary postural adjustments?
Afferent neurons
What part of the brain anticipates and coordinates postural adjustments?
Cerebellum
What is the term for the ability to maintain equilibrium at rest or in motion?
Balance
What are the stages of recovery post-injury?
Recovery, compensation, and adaptation
What type of control do postural responses involve?
Closed loop processing
What is the term for the ability to foresee and prepare for changes in posture?
Anticipation
What is the term for the generation of neurons from undifferentiated cells (stem cells)?
Neurogenesis
Study Notes
Human Growth and Development: Key Points
- Genetics and environment (diet, physical activity) are crucial in human growth and development, with rapid physical growth in the first year of life.
- Motor behavior is determined by physical size, neurological and physiological functioning, information processing abilities, and self-organizing properties.
- Human growth and development encompass prenatal, infancy, early childhood, later childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and older age periods.
- Adolescence is a period of rapid change, particularly in secondary sexual characteristics, height, and weight, with an increase in abstract thought.
- Observations of human growth and development highlight the importance of heredity, environment, and task, and development is stage-like with predictable and definite milestones.
- Theories of human development include psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral and social, and ethological theories, with attachment theory emphasizing the importance of forming emotional attachments to caregivers for survival.
- Attachment phases include pre-attachment, attachment in the making, "clear-cut" attachment, and formation of a reciprocal relationship, impacting the individual's future relationships and parenting.
- Secure attachment is linked to higher self-esteem, social skills, empathy, and better social skills in children.
- Factors affecting attachment security include the opportunity for attachment, quality of caregiving, and infant characteristics, with trauma and adverse childhood experiences impacting neurological biological development.
- Adverse childhood experiences can alter physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development, with potential delays or regression in physical skills and sensitization to stress.
- Trauma can lead to neurobiological changes, affecting memory, processing, stress regulation, and the ability to modulate responses, potentially leading to hyperarousal and difficulties in learning and behavior regulation.
- Caregiving continuity, quality, and opportunity, as well as the impact of trauma and adverse experiences on neurological biological development, are crucial in shaping human growth and development.
Postural Control and Musculoskeletal Components
- Musculoskeletal components include the skeleton and muscles that contribute to postural control.
- The body adapts to changing environments by developing more efficient strategies to maintain upright posture.
- Anticipatory mechanisms allow the body to foresee and prepare for changes in posture.
- Postural control involves individual sensory systems, neuromuscular synergies, and action systems.
- Higher level planning involves the frontal cortex for planning and the motor cortex for execution in postural control.
- Coordination in postural control involves the brainstem and spinal networks coordinating muscle response synergies.
- Postural control includes stability limits that change according to the task and individual characteristics.
- Strategies underlying stance postural control involve sensory, central (perceptual and cognitive), and motor mechanisms.
- Ideal alignment in standing uses the least amount of energy or muscle contraction for energy efficiency.
- Postural responses involve feedback control and feedforward (anticipatory) control.
- Muscle spindles constantly monitor the length of muscle fibers, contributing to postural adjustments.
- Muscle synergies involve specific muscle activation sequences in response to perturbations, with various strategies for different directions and magnitudes.
Motor Learning and Postural Control
- Sensitisation increases neural system responsiveness and can occur through sensory learning and associative learning, involving classical and operant conditioning.
- Procedural learning leads to automaticity and habits, while declarative learning results in consciously recallable knowledge.
- Various theories of motor learning include closed loop processing, open loop processing, and ecological theory, with possible stages of cognitive, associative, and autonomous learning.
- Motor learning progresses through novice, advanced, and expert stages, involving control of degrees of freedom and increasing automaticity.
- Practical applications of motor learning include transfer of learning to new tasks/environments, mental practice, feedback, and practice conditions.
- Recovery of function post-injury involves considering recovery versus compensation, stages of recovery, and factors affecting recovery such as age, lesion characteristics, experience, pharmacology, and training quality.
- Postural control involves stability and orientation, with balance as the ability to maintain equilibrium at rest or in motion.
- Postural sway is described as mediolateral or anterior-posterior, and balance involves maintaining the body within the limits of stability.
- Systems required for postural control include environmental perception through proprioception, vision, and vestibular cochlear systems.
- Afferent neurons send signals to the CNS, which makes decisions and sends information to the motor systems via efferent pathways to make necessary postural adjustments.
- The cerebellum anticipates and coordinates postural adjustments and is important in learning new tasks, reducing the difference between anticipation and actual outcomes as learning progresses.
Test your knowledge of human growth and development with this quiz covering key points such as genetics, motor behavior, developmental stages, attachment theory, and the impact of trauma and adverse experiences. Explore the significance of heredity, environment, and caregiving on human development.
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