psy230 chp 11
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Questions and Answers

Which dimension categorizes ideals?

  • Evolution and adaptation
  • Personality and behavior
  • Culture and upbringing
  • Time and concreteness (correct)

    • What is the primary driver of human behavior according to evolutionary theorists?

  • Hedonism
  • Values and motives
  • Cultural norms
  • Inclusive fitness (correct)

    • What did Freud's theory postulate about consciously accessible goals?

  • Reflect cultural norms
  • Are rooted in childhood learning
  • Are influenced by evolutionary drivers
  • Serve the unconscious motive to have sex (correct)

    • What are goals categorized as?

    <p>Concrete ideals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do values reflect according to the text?

    <p>Subjective beliefs influenced by culture and childhood learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do theories of human values differ in according to the text?

    <p>The number of values they postulate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did another influential theory propose about human's primary motives?

    <p>To maximize pleasure and minimize pain (hedonism)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is a simplistic version of hedonism easily refuted according to the text?

    <p>Humans often do unpleasant things for future gains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is more realistic and practical to assume according to the text?

    <p>A number of motives that vary in importance across individuals and cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are we typically aware of?

    <p>Our goals, but not our values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is at the core of personality psychology?

    <p>The Big Five and specific traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What influences human behavior apart from past experiences and current situations?

    <p>Ideals about the future</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to refer to any valued belief about the future?

    <p>Ideals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who introduced the term 'human concerns' in relation to ideals about the future?

    <p>Cantril</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What creates human diversity apart from the Big Five and specific traits?

    <p>Ideals about the future</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do some people want their lives to be like, according to the text?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to any valued belief about the future?

    <p>Values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apart from traits and the Big Five, what else influences human diversity according to the text?

    <p>Values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who introduced the term 'values' in relation to ideals about the future?

    <p>Rokeach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Personal projects' in relation to ideals about the future was introduced by whom?

    <p>Roberts &amp; Robins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the biggest problem for hierarchical models that place one motive on top of another?

    <p>They do not allow for individual and cultural differences in the importance of motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who proposed a revised model of needs that replaced self-actualization with parenting?

    <p>Evolutionary psychologists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Schwartz propose a more manageable list of?

    <p>10 universal values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason why hierarchical models are not very useful for the study of variation in motives?

    <p>They do not allow for individual and cultural differences in the importance of motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two dimensions in which the 10 values are represented in Schwartz's model?

    <p>Self-enhancement versus self-transcendence and openness-to-change versus conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Big Five trait is negatively related to self-enhancement versus self-transcendence?

    <p>Agreeableness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What strategy is used to deal with the challenging problem of validating self-report measures of values?

    <p>Both a and b</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which value is positively related to Openness to Experience?

    <p>Self-direction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Schwartz's model assume about the order of importance for the 10 values?

    <p>There is no fixed order of importance for 10 values, varying across individuals and cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do values tend to correlate with?

    <p>Specific goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been studied in relation to the relationship between values and the Big Five traits?

    <p>The relationship between values and the Big Five traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does validating self-report measures of values face challenges due to?

    <p>Social desirability bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two dimensions in which the 10 values are represented in Schwartz's model?

    <p>Self-enhancement versus self-transcendence and openness-to-change versus conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does subtracting the overall mean from each rating aim to address?

    <p>Response bias in self-report measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do twin studies show about the influences on values?

    <p>Higher MZ correlations than DZ correlations, indicating genetic influences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Canadian twins show about the effects of shared environment on values?

    <p>No evidence of shared environment effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do cross-cultural studies reveal about the variation in values?

    <p>Pronounced differences between cultures, accounting for over 10% of the variance in values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the World Value Survey (WVS) measure?

    <p>Values across the world with national representative samples</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does wealth correlate with in relation to values?

    <p>Openness to change and self-transcendence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary driver of human behavior according to evolutionary theorists?

    <p>The influence of environmental factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the WVS include in the last two waves (2006, 2010)?

    <p>A brief measure of Schwartz's values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do twin studies suggest about heritability and shared environment effects?

    <p>Suggests that 20% of variance is heritable and 10% is due to growing up together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do self-enhancement and self-transcendence levels correlate with across different regions?

    <p>Highest self-enhancement levels in Eastern Europe and highest self-transcendence levels in Western Europe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the survival versus self-expression dimension measure?

    <p>The perception of personal freedom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the map based on Schwartz's dimensions show about nations from the same region?

    <p>They cluster together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is notable about the influence of British culture on countries in different regions of the world?

    <p>It is significant and observable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference to other Western nations in central Europe according to the text?

    <p>Higher score on the secular-rational dimension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a single item strongly correlated with the survival versus self-expression dimension measure?

    <p>Perception of personal freedom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes countries where religion and tradition influence laws and social norms from countries that separate religion and politics?

    <p>Secular-rational dimension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a map based on Schwartz's dimensions show about nations from different regions?

    <p>They cluster together based on cultural dimensions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a single item strongly correlated with the survival versus self-expression dimension measure?

    <p>Perception of personal freedom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes countries where religion and tradition influence laws and social norms from countries that separate religion and politics?

    <p>Secular-rational dimension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes European nations from other Western nations in central Europe according to the text?

    <p>Higher score on the secular-rational dimension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the retest correlation for the stability of values at age 11?

    <p>r ~.3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dimension do women score higher on, according to the research on values?

    <p>Benevolence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the gender differences in values explain to some extent?

    <p>The increased number of women in powerful positions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the one-year retest correlation for the stability of values at age 18?

    <p>$r ~.6$</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, what increases during adolescence in terms of values?

    <p>$r ~.3$ retest correlation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the increased number of women in powerful positions show about cultural factors?

    <p>They play a significant role in shaping values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the stability of values and traits have in common, according to the text?

    <p>They both increase during adolescence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason for the stability of values, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>People are motivated to maintain a consistent self-image.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the one-year retest correlation for the stability of values at age 20s over a four-year interval?

    <p>$r ~.7$</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What makes it possible to distinguish cohort effects and age effects in the World Value Survey?

    <p>The repetition of the same questions over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a stronger effect of year of survey compared to year of birth suggest?

    <p>A cohort effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the difference in scores between a person born in 1910 surveyed in the 1990s and the average 20-year old in 2010 indicate?

    <p>A shift in values towards more tolerance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor contributing to the changes in values observed over the past decades?

    <p>Greater acceptance of homosexuality and legalization of gay marriages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the small difference between US and Canadian respondents suggest?

    <p>Fairly similar values between the two countries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does each generation being 'a bit more secular/rational' than the previous generation imply?

    <p>Values leaning towards non-religious beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested by a d ~ 0.4 per decade for year of survey and d ~ 0.2 per decade for year of birth?

    <p>Stronger influence of survey year on morality questions than birth year</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the general shift in values over past decades indicate?

    <p>Increased tolerance towards minority groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested by somebody born in 1910 surveyed in the 1990s having a score of 2.5 whereas the average 20-year old in 2010 had a score around 5?

    <p>Generational differences in values over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do combined effects of changes in values suggest about human behavior?

    <p>Values influencing attitudes and behaviors over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the strongest relationship observed with political orientation?

    <p>Universalism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which value showed the highest spousal similarity?

    <p>Dutifulness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the highest similarity between spouses?

    <p>Religiosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which field are students already high in self-transcendence at the beginning of university?

    <p>Psychology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do surveys show about university professors' political orientation?

    <p>More politically liberal than conservative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do some conservative politicians express concerns about in relation to university education?

    <p>Changing students' values to be more liberal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason why business students' values change little in response to a university education?

    <p>They are drawn to business due to their care for others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the dimension that influences voting behavior in democracies?

    <p>Left-leaning/liberal versus right-leaning/conservative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which area do values pose more problems according to the text?

    <p>Collective actions such as planning joint vacations or making public policies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one important behavior in democracies mentioned in the text?

    <p>Voting behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Understanding Human Values and Motives

    • Dreaming about a Caribbean vacation during Covid-19 pandemic reflects positive valuation of spending time in the Caribbean
    • Values are subjective and can be rooted in cultural norms or childhood learning
    • Values are a normal variation in personality and not objectively good
    • Ideals can be categorized along two dimensions: time and concreteness
    • Goals are concrete ideals, while motives and values are more abstract
    • We are typically aware of our goals, but not of our values
    • Theories of human values differ in the number of values they postulate, from a single ultimate motive to theories with a dozen or more distinct values
    • Evolutionary theorists argue that the ultimate driver of human behavior is inclusive fitness
    • Freud's theory postulated that many consciously accessible goals serve the unconscious motive to have sex, but this theory is not widely accepted today
    • Another influential theory proposed that human's primary motives are to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain (hedonism)
    • A simplistic version of hedonism is easily refuted because humans often do unpleasant things for future gains
    • It is more realistic and practical to assume a number of motives that are all important, but can vary in importance across individuals and cultures

    Schwartz's 10 Values Model

    • Schwartz's model assumes no fixed order of importance for 10 values, varying across individuals and cultures.
    • The 10 values are: Power, Achievement, Hedonism, Stimulation, Self-Direction, Universalism, Benevolence, Tradition, Dutifulness, and Security.
    • Values are reflected in specific goals and tend to correlate with each other.
    • Values are not totally independent, with some closely related and difficult to separate.
    • The 10 values are represented in a two-dimensional model, with opposing and neighboring values easy to prioritize and often going together.
    • The two-dimensional structure is self-enhancement versus self-transcendence and openness-to-change versus conservation.
    • Validating self-report measures of values is challenging due to the desirability of all values guiding behaviors.
    • Two strategies used to deal with this problem: subtracting the overall mean from each rating and forcing participants to compare or rank values.
    • Self-ratings of values show moderate convergent validity with informant ratings.
    • The relationship between values and the Big Five traits has been studied.
    • Agreeableness is negatively related to self-enhancement versus self-transcendence and positively related to benevolence.
    • Openness to Experience is related to openness to change versus conservation and positively related to self-direction.

    Genetic and Environmental Influences on Values

    • Values are less stable during adolescence, indicating influence from environmental factors.
    • Twin studies show higher MZ correlations than DZ correlations, indicating genetic influences on values.
    • Average MZ correlation was r =.32 and same-sex DZ twins was r =.20, suggesting 20% of variance is heritable and 10% is due to growing up together.
    • Canadian twins showed no evidence of shared environment effects.
    • Values show little influence of parenting, surprising given the correlation with heritable traits like agreeableness and openness.
    • Cross-cultural studies of values reveal pronounced differences between cultures, with national differences accounting for over 10% of the variance in values.
    • Self-enhancement is highest in Africa, self-transcendence is highest in Eastern Europe, and Western Europe scores highest on openness to change values.
    • The World Value Survey (WVS) measures values across the world with national representative samples, providing data since 1981.
    • The WVS included a brief measure of Schwartz's values in the last two waves (2006, 2010).
    • Culture accounted for 14% of the variation in openness to change and 11% of the variance in self-transcendence, showing values vary more across cultures than personality traits.
    • Wealth correlated with openness to change and self-transcendence, suggesting increasing wealth leads to more open and self-transcending values.
    • Moral judgments and the importance of religion also show large variation across nations and form a cultural dimension called traditional versus secular-rational values.

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    Explore the cognitive capacity and future-oriented behavior that contribute to human diversity in personality psychology. Learn about the core traits and the Big Five in understanding human attributes.

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