Human Development: Nature and Nurture

• Doubt is normal when reviewing, remember your reasons for pursuing this path.

Perspectives on Nature and Nurture

• Human Development scientifically studies systematic changes and stability in people.
• Life-Span Development views human development as a lifelong process and can be studied scientifically.
• Life-Span Perspective views development as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual.
• Development involves growth, maintenance, and loss regulation

Domains of Development

• Physical Development involves bodily growth, sensory capabilities, motor skills, and health.
• Cognitive Development includes learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
• Psychosocial Development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships.
• Social Construction is a concept or practice invented by a particular culture or society.
• The Stability-Change Issue considers the degree traits persist or change.
• Continuity-Discontinuity focuses on gradual cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages of development (discontinuity).
• Growth involves quantitative physical changes.
• Maturation is a transitional state toward full functional capability.
• Natural sequence of physical change and behavior pattern unfolding occurs in maturation.
• Development encompasses functional, mental, and social changes.
• Learning involves adapting to the environment.

Behavioral Genetics

• Genes contribute to attributes like activity level, emotionality, aggressiveness, and sex drive in rats, mice, and chickens.
• Behavioral Genetics studies the extent of genetic and environmental differences accounting for traits.
• Heritability measures how traits' variability in a population links to genetic differences.
• Gregor Mendel: studied heredity in plants.
• Selective Breeding breeds animals for specific traits to determine heritability.

Studies on Genetics

• Twin Studies: used in genetic research.
• Adoption Studies: used in genetic research.
• Family Studies: used in genetic research.
• Concordance Rate: measures trait similarity between related individuals.
• Reaction Range denotes the variable expression of a trait.
• Canalized Range denotes the restricted expression of a trait
• Genes activate and deactivate throughout life (Epigenetics).
• Gene-Environment Interaction: how genes affect responses to experiences, and how the environment influences gene expression.
• Genes, shared experiences, and unique experiences contribute to emotionality differences.

Gene-Environment Correlations

• Passive Gene-Environment: parental genes influence the environment they provide for children.
• Evocative Gene-Environment: genetic makeup affects reactions from others.
• Active Gene-Environment: children seek environments aligning with their genotype.
• Heredity consists of inherited traits (Nature).
• the environment influences behavior from conception onward (Nurture).
• Individual Differences: people vary in gender, height, and energy.
• Family, socioeconomic status, and culture all play a role in development.
• Ethnic Gloss is overgeneralization that blurs variations.
• Race is an identifiable biological category, more accurately defined as a social construct.
• Context of Development: Family - Nuclear and Extended Family.
• Identifiable biological category, more accurately defined a social.
• Normative Influences: affect many or most people.
• Nonnormative Influences: unusual events impacting individual lives.
• Historical Generation: a group of people born at about the same time
• Imprinting: instinctive following of the first moving object.
• Critical Period: impact when an event occurs, or doesn't occur.
• Sensitive Periods: the time a person is sensitive to certain experiences.
• Plasticity means modifiability in performance.

Theories and Models

• Theory logically relates concepts to explain and predict development.
• Hypothesis: testable explanations or predictions.
• John Locke: Tabula Rasa (blank slate).
• Rousseau children develop their positive tendencies if society doesn't corrupt.
• Mechanistic Model: reactive development to environmental input.
• Organismic Model: active influence on development; initiate, don't just react.
• Continuous development is gradual and incremental.
• Discontinuous development is abrupt or uneven.
• Quantitative Change is a change in quantity or amount.
• Qualitative Change is the emergence of new, not easily predicted phenomena.
• Evolutionary Psychology emphasizes survival.
• Nativist Perspective: genes.
• Empiricist Perspective: environment.
• Noam Chomsky: all children acquire language similarly.

Research & APA Principles

• Beneficence: do no harm.
• Fidelity & Responsibility: professional behavior and trust.
• Integrity: accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness.
• Justice: fairness and access.
• Respect for Rights & Dignity: privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.
• PAP Respect for Dignity: respect, free consent, privacy, and justice.
• PAP Competent Caring: working for others' benefit and avoid harm.
• PAP Integrity: honesty, accuracy, and communication.
• PAP Professional Responsibility: contributing knowledge, high ethical standards.

Ethical Standards

• Accurate information and approval must be providen before research.
• The participants must give informed consent.
• Researchers who study vulnerable populations should collect informed permission from individuals.
• Individual's assent is required, with explanation and guardian's permission.
• Recording images requires permission, unless naturalistic observation or deception is needed.
• Consent must be given during debriefing.

Dispensing of Informed Consent

Dispense or omit informed consent only when:

• Research would not create distress or harm.

  • Study of educational practices.
  • Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observation, and archival researcg.
  • Confidentiality is protected

• Permitted by law.

• Avoid excessive incentives for research participation to ensure consent isn't coerced.

• Do not conduct deception unless justified.

• Discuss deception as early as possible.

• Must give participants the nature, results, and conclusions of research.

• Ensure safety by minimizing animal discomfort.

• If so, procedures must be justified and minimized.

• Terminate procedures quickly to minimize pain.

• Present only original work.

• Give authorship credit where it's due.

• Share data for reanalysis with qualified professionals.

• Use shared data only for declared purpose.

• Researchers must study cultural influences. Ethnocentrism: one's group is superior.

• Don't deceive people unless justified.

• Explain deception as early as feasible.

• Participants can withdraw if they want to.

Descriptive Research Designs

• Aims observe and record behavior.
• Case Study: studies individual or group.
  • Can't easily generalize.
  • It is low external validity.
• Ethnographic Studies: describe a cultural's norms.
  • Can debunk Western theories.
• Correlational Study: relationship between variables.
  • No random assignment.
  • Lack control.
  • High external validity.

Experiment

• A controlled procedure is used
• Establish cause-and-effect.
• Quasi-Experiment compares accidental groups (correlational study).

Developmental Research Designs

Cross-Sectional:

• Assesses different ages at one point.
• No cases of attrition. Longitudinal:
• Studies the same group over time.
• Attrition could be a problem.
• Sequential: successive cross-sectional or longitudinal samples.

Developmental Theories

• Frued believed in psychosexual theory

• Humans have biological drives formed by early experiences that shaped later function. Instincts (biological forces) move behavior with no awareness

• View newborns 'seething cauldrons' Stages focus on mouth (oral), anus (anal), and genitals (phallic). Id (impulsive), ego (rational), and superego (moral) interact. Unresolved stages cause fixation and personality issues. Complexes occur (oedipus and castration) and stages, which include latency and guilt. Defenses include repression, regression, and projection.

• Erikson believed in psychosocial theory with age linked challenges. In infancy, there is trust vs mistrust. Toddlerhood brings autonomy vs shame. Early childhood has initiative and guilt. Middle childhood involves industry vs inferiority. Adolescence has identity vs confusion. Each crisis needs a positive and negative end. Social and cultural influences are important.

Cognitive Development

• Piaget viewed intelligence as adaptable. Constructivism: children construct understanding based on world experiences. In sensorimotor, schemes learned through reflexes (0-2 years). Circular reactions then occur to make certain things happen. Representational abilities create mental pictures with objects Develops understanding of object permanence. Children use symbols Pre-operational stage uses words images , drawings. Dominated by egocentrism. It does not perform operations. They're always resorting to action. Transition is due to equilibration where thinking is shifting.

Paiget substages and stages

• Sensorimotor is where infants lack the ability to retain mental representations Object permanence is an issue and if the objects are no longer seen, infants think it dies

• The first Preoperational substage is symbolic function.

• 2nd substage of Preoperational : Intuitive thought (4-7yrs)

• Children are able to understand symbols if age ok

• Childrens exhibit primitive and intuitive reasoning to questions

• The Concrete stage is is better in understanding.

• At age 7 according to Concrete Operational according to Piaget

• Develop understanding of the different states of time Children solve many perspectives in situation

• Paaget believed that

• Inductivily reasoning

• Children use multiple ways which are easier. Adolescents enter Formal Operational thinking to solve problem. Using the right mental attitude To consider, develop and test thinking. New thinking is as different as new reshaped body In mind at that point.

Kohlberg Theory

Stage 1: Obey rule to avoid punishment. Stage 2: Conform due to personal gain. Stage 3: Act of concern as Good Person Stage 4: Rules are recognized. Stage 5: Rules have to bend for goodness. Stage 6: Own moral conduct. Kohlberg is too much emphasis and little behavior.

Heteronomous morality is (4-7) the view of justice See that it is not under the influence of people

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Bowbly model

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