Human Development and the Life-Span Perspective

• Human Development is the scientific study of systematic processes of change and stability in people.
• Life-Span Development is the concept of human development as a lifelong process that can be scientifically studied.
• Life-Span Perspective views development as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual, involving growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss.

Domains of Development

• Physical Development involves the growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health.
• Cognitive Development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
• Psychosocial Development relates to emotions, personality, and social relationships.
• Social Construction is a concept or practice that is an invention of a particular culture or society.
• Stability-Change Issue involves the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist throughout life or change.
• Continuity-Discontinuity pertains to the degree to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
• Maturation is the unfolding of natural physical change and behavior patterns
• Behavioral Genetics is the scientific study to the extent to which genetic and environmental differences among people and animals are responsible for differences in their traits.
• Heritability is the proportion of variability in a trait within a large sample, linkable to genetic differences among individuals.
• Gregor Mendel is known for his heredity studies in plants.
• Selective Breeding involves attempting to breed animals for a particular trait to determine if the trait is heritable.
• Genes contribute attributes such as activity level, emotionality, aggressiveness, and sex drive in rats, mice, and chickens.

Twin Studies, Adoption Studies, and Family Studies

• Concordance Rate: percentage of studied pairs where if one displays a trait, the other also does.
• Genes turn on and off in patterned ways throughout the lifespan which is known as Epigenetics.
• Gene-Environment Interaction means the effects of genes depend on environment and response to environment depends on genes.
• Intelligence is strongly influenced by heredity but also affected by parental stimulation, education, and peer influence.

3 Factors Contributing to Individual Differences in Emotionality

• Genes
• Shared Environmental Influences: common experiences causing similarity, parenting style.
• Nonshared Environmental Influences: unique experiences not shared, for example, parental favoritism.

3 Kinds of Gene-Environment Correlations

• Passive Gene-Environment occurs when parents provide a home environment influenced partly by their own genotypes.
• Evocative Gene-Environment happens when a child's genotype evokes reactions from others. A child's genetic makeup could affect how others react to them, influencing their social environment.
• Active Gene-Environment is exerted when children's genotypes influence the kinds of environments they seek.
• Heredity consists of inborn traits and characteristics provided by the child's parents (Nature).
• Environment is influences that stems from the outside body, starting from conception throughout life (Nurture).
• Context of Development includes:
  • Family (Nuclear and Extended Family)
  • Socioeconomic Status (combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation)
  • Culture (society's or group's total way of life), Ethnic Gloss (overgeneralization that obscures or blurs variations), Race is more accurately defined as a social construct
  • Gender, History
• Normative Influences are biological or environmental events affecting many in similar ways and events that touch only certain individuals
• Normative Age-Graded Influences or Normative History-Graded Influences occur at certain points
• Historical Generation is a group experiencing an event at a formative time.
• Age Cohort is a group born around the same time.
• Nonnormative are unusual events with major individual impact because they disrupt expected life cycle.
• Imprinting – instinctively following the first moving object
• Critical Period – specific time when an event, or its absence, has a specific impact on development
• Sensitive Periods – time when a developing person is especially responsive to certain kind of experience
• Plasticity - modifiability of performance
• A Theory is a set of logically related concepts/statements to describe and explain development, predicting future behavior.
• Hypothesis – explanation/predictions that can be tested by further research
• John Locke proposed Tabula Rasa (blank slate).
• Jean Jacques Rousseau held that children are born "noble savages" developing according to positive natural tendencies if uncorrupted.

Metamodels

• Mechanistic Model - people react to environmental input.
• Organismic Model - people are active and growing, initiating events; they set their own development in motion, and do not just react.
• Continuous - gradual and incremental.
• Discontinuous - abrupt or uneven.
• Quantitative Change is a change in number or amount, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size
• Qualitative Change is emergence of new phenomena that could not be easily predicted on the basis of the past basic functioning
• Evolutionary Psychology emphasizes adaptation, reproduction, and "survival of the fittest" in shaping behavior
• The Responsibilities to Society include to conducting affairs within society with highest ethical standards
• Must provide accurate information and obtain approval prior to conducting the research
• Informed consent is required, which include:
  • Purpose of the research
  • Duration and procedures
  • Right to decline and withdraw
  • Consequences of declining or withdrawing
  • Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects
  • Benefits
  • Limits of confidentiality
  • Incentives for participation
  • Researcher's contact information
• Those who study vulnerable populations should obtain informed consent both from the individual and guardian
• Seek individual's assent, provide an explanation, consider their best interest, and obtain permission from their guardians
• Must appropriately document written or oral consent, permission or assent
• Permission for recording images or voices are needed unless the research consists of solely naturalistic observations in public places, or research designed includes deception
• Consent must be obtained during debriefing Dispense or Omitting Informed consent only when: Research wouldn't create distress or harm, study of normal educational practices conducted in an educational setting. Anonymous surveys, naturalistic observation, protected archival research. Permitted by law
• Avoid offering excessive incentives that could coerce
• Studies must discuss any deception early and not during the conclusion
• Must give participants the nature, results, conclusions of study to make sure misconceptions are clarified
• Ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. Procedures must be justified and minimal.
• Must not present portions of another's work or data as their own
• Must take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit, only for work they have actually performed or to which they have substantially contributed
• Faculty advisors should discuss publication credit with students as early as possible
• After publishing, data cannot be withheld from other competent professionals who intends to reanalyze the data
• Shared data should only be used for the declared purpose.
• Researchers studying ethnic, cultural, or socioeconomic influences must strive to keep their own values from biasing their perceptions of groups
• Ethnocentrism sees one's own group as superior
• Deception: If ever, must be explained as early as feasible during the conclusion of the participation; right to withdraw is assured
• Basic Research Designs: Descriptive aims for observing/recording behavior, Case Study consists of studing indivdual/groups which is usefull
• Useful in rare cases, and oCan explore sources of behavior, test treatments, and suggestions directions for further research. Cannot be generalize on another population and cannot make a strong causal statements
• Ethnographic Studies is to describe social patterns, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, society traditions , Case study with observer bias, Cultural biases in theory/helps with reasearch. Debunks western theories which are universally applied
• Correlational Study determines correlation exist between variables, no random assignment
• Lack of control over extraneous variables; cannot establish Causation

Studying Important Ethical Issues

• Unethical Reasons: Used to for study issues, ethical issues, study natural settings
• Experiment is a controlled variable which has cause/effect, manipulation, permit replication, ethical concerns, and results can be artificial
• Quasi Experiment has seperate groups based on their circumstances, which result in A correlational study
• Cohort effects: studies concerned with age group
• Humans were born with drives such as sex and hunge and early function which shaped later functioning
• Motives and emotional conflict affect them, experiences result in family
• Selfish/aggressive which is unconscious motivation
• Id: impulsive, irrational, selfish satisfaction Ego:
• Finds realistic ways to satisfy instincts
• Emerge during infantile which energizes
• Health Personality equal Id, Ego, Superego

Defense mechanisms

• Fixation occur with arrest in adults; libido remains Oral - Fixation to Nail biter/smoker Anal - Obsessive or messy
• People refuse to accept information or facts
• Ex: widow never accepted husband
• Projection
• Attribute unwanted feelings to someone Sublimation
• Direct impulses into approved thoughts
• Reaction
• Express opposites conscious ways Erikson says in psychosocial theory: Crisis (Virtues)

Definese Stages

• Social & Culture, what influenced important events,
• Emphasizing influences in socitety. Positive and negative tendency Successive resolution ( Social & Culture + Influence

Stages and Orientations

• Stage Oriented
• Active
• Cognitive development
• Ability to adopt in cognitive environments
• Organization- adapt to already know
• Adaptation- new information into already know Assimilation new schemes to agreement new information The 1st level is sensorimotor -birth to age 2 for cognitive development stage Infant learns to produce events by chance action Actions/mental representaions and objects Disequilibrium - assimilation to new conflict equalibrum state (numbers Ability represent objects actions in memory Infants develop remember Imitiation children under age 18 lack ability engage in deterrent initiation. Development
• Object pernaments, the realization out of sight Dual representation and knowledge of their self the ability to represent with one mental representaition

More On Language

• Identitys = constant changing outward form (animism ,cantation
• Can not - the centrate think, understand that reactions are two directions , egocentrism/centered

Concrete Operational And Theory

• Spatial Concepts. Judgement about effects and causes categorys Class.

• Deductive Theories

• Deductive- general statement.
  

• Conservation - reversibility or decentering ( Numbers.

• Symbolic- thoughts with the absence

• • Mental present

• . Theory

• . 123

• 911 memory

• The decision of influenced of parallel. Kohlberg

• The level & punishment

• Instruments. Some lawyers know law. Morality 18 year olds

Theories On Piagets

• 11, from the highest level, are the formal operations. . adolescents remove rely , abstract thoughts. .

• Selfness - . the way and themselves in the

• Kohlberg overemphasized. Ecological & bronfenbrenner & is to understand

• Ainsworrh: to infant & caregiver. avoidant are unresponsive . amivalent is intrustive O. what's a and what's the 123

Mahler, Identity, Adulthood

• Mahler: what's normal, not ,self Marcia; , commotment Wilson, adapt. Reciprocals is bidirectionals that affect all over lifespan

Aduldhood and Aging

• The need people , with a focus set of a for . To is when we and can that's well-being.

• Then is when it a time of the or have

• • There's only. They have the work from their. and be It it the that The . To as then to get - . . more but now with of to for of Hi