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Questions and Answers
What is complement fixation?
What is complement fixation?
Each complement pathway involves a cascade in which complement proteins are activated in an orderly sequence, leading to cell lysis, phagocytosis, and inflammation.
For the activation of complement proteins, what is the difference between classical and alternative pathways?
For the activation of complement proteins, what is the difference between classical and alternative pathways?
The classical pathway is part of adaptive immunity and depends on the binding of antibodies to invading organisms, while the alternative pathway is part of innate immunity and is triggered by interactions among factors B, D, P and polysaccharide molecules on microorganisms.
Describe interferons.
Describe interferons.
Interferons leave infected cells, enter neighboring cells, stimulate those cells to produce proteins to prevent viral replication, and activate macrophages and natural killer cells.
Describe the inflammatory response.
Describe the inflammatory response.
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What are the two types of adaptive immunity?
What are the two types of adaptive immunity?
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What is an antigen, and what is the difference between B and T cells?
What is an antigen, and what is the difference between B and T cells?
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What is the difference between MHC class I and MHC class II molecules?
What is the difference between MHC class I and MHC class II molecules?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of the blood vessels which help to maintain homeostasis? (Select all that apply)
Which of the following is NOT a function of the blood vessels which help to maintain homeostasis? (Select all that apply)
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Which blood vessels allow the exchange of gases and nutrients between the blood and tissues?
Which blood vessels allow the exchange of gases and nutrients between the blood and tissues?
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The wall of the blood vessel is composed of three layers. Which of the following is NOT a layer of a blood vessel wall?
The wall of the blood vessel is composed of three layers. Which of the following is NOT a layer of a blood vessel wall?
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What is the name of the blood vessel layer that contains smooth muscle fibers?
What is the name of the blood vessel layer that contains smooth muscle fibers?
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Which arteries are the distributing arteries?
Which arteries are the distributing arteries?
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What is the name of the blood vessel that directly connects an arteriole to a venule?
What is the name of the blood vessel that directly connects an arteriole to a venule?
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What is the flow of blood as blood moves from the heart to the tissues back to the heart?
What is the flow of blood as blood moves from the heart to the tissues back to the heart?
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What is the equation that describes mean arterial blood pressure (MAP)?
What is the equation that describes mean arterial blood pressure (MAP)?
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What is it called when the sympathetic stimulation keeps the arteries in a constant state of partial constriction?
What is it called when the sympathetic stimulation keeps the arteries in a constant state of partial constriction?
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Which pair of processes is responsible for the exchange of fluids across the walls of capillaries?
Which pair of processes is responsible for the exchange of fluids across the walls of capillaries?
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Which of the following local control mechanisms would increase blood flow to the tissues? (Select all that apply)
Which of the following local control mechanisms would increase blood flow to the tissues? (Select all that apply)
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What sensory receptors detect changes in arterial stretch?
What sensory receptors detect changes in arterial stretch?
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What is the effect of epinephrine released from the adrenal medulla?
What is the effect of epinephrine released from the adrenal medulla?
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Which of the following is NOT a chemical that is detected by chemoreceptors that affects blood pressure? (Select all that apply)
Which of the following is NOT a chemical that is detected by chemoreceptors that affects blood pressure? (Select all that apply)
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A drop in oxygen results in an
A drop in oxygen results in an
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All of the following are effects of the release of renin by the kidney because of low blood pressure EXCEPT: (Select all that apply)
All of the following are effects of the release of renin by the kidney because of low blood pressure EXCEPT: (Select all that apply)
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What are the effects of aldosterone?
What are the effects of aldosterone?
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What mechanism causes a decrease in blood pressure?
What mechanism causes a decrease in blood pressure?
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Which of the following is NOT a part of the lymphatic system? (Select all that apply)
Which of the following is NOT a part of the lymphatic system? (Select all that apply)
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What are the lymphatic vessels in the small intestine that absorb fat?
What are the lymphatic vessels in the small intestine that absorb fat?
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What is the primary cell in lymphatic organs?
What is the primary cell in lymphatic organs?
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What are the lymphatic nodules that are found in the small intestine and appendix?
What are the lymphatic nodules that are found in the small intestine and appendix?
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Which of the following is a bean-shaped structure that is distributed along lymph vessels?
Which of the following is a bean-shaped structure that is distributed along lymph vessels?
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What two types of immunity does the body have?
What two types of immunity does the body have?
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What is the nonspecific lymphocyte that kills tumor cells and virus-infected cells?
What is the nonspecific lymphocyte that kills tumor cells and virus-infected cells?
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Which of the following is an effect of the inflammatory response in damaged or infected tissue? (Select all that apply)
Which of the following is an effect of the inflammatory response in damaged or infected tissue? (Select all that apply)
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What molecule presents antigens to immune cells?
What molecule presents antigens to immune cells?
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Describe the structure of an antibody.
Describe the structure of an antibody.
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What part of an antibody combines with an antigen?
What part of an antibody combines with an antigen?
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Which of the following immunities is caused by antibodies being passed from the mother's blood across the placenta into the fetus' blood?
Which of the following immunities is caused by antibodies being passed from the mother's blood across the placenta into the fetus' blood?
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What is the name of the age-related change in arteries caused by the deposition of materials in the walls of arteries to form plaques?
What is the name of the age-related change in arteries caused by the deposition of materials in the walls of arteries to form plaques?
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What is the flow of blood from the heart through the systemic circulation?
What is the flow of blood from the heart through the systemic circulation?
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What is the blood pressure that occurs when the ventricles are contracting?
What is the blood pressure that occurs when the ventricles are contracting?
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What would cause a decrease in blood flow?
What would cause a decrease in blood flow?
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Which of the following hormones is NOT produced by the anterior pituitary gland? (Select all that apply)
Which of the following hormones is NOT produced by the anterior pituitary gland? (Select all that apply)
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When the ventricles contract, what happens?
When the ventricles contract, what happens?
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What are the functions of the peripheral circulatory system?
What are the functions of the peripheral circulatory system?
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What are the three major blood vessels?
What are the three major blood vessels?
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What is the difference between an artery and a vein?
What is the difference between an artery and a vein?
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Describe the tissue layers of blood vessels.
Describe the tissue layers of blood vessels.
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What are the three types of arteries?
What are the three types of arteries?
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Describe capillaries.
Describe capillaries.
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What is arteriosclerosis?
What is arteriosclerosis?
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What is vasomotor tone?
What is vasomotor tone?
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What is pulse pressure and vascular compliance?
What is pulse pressure and vascular compliance?
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How does gravity affect blood pressure?
How does gravity affect blood pressure?
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How is blood flow controlled?
How is blood flow controlled?
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Describe short-term regulation of blood pressure.
Describe short-term regulation of blood pressure.
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Describe long-term blood pressure regulation.
Describe long-term blood pressure regulation.
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Describe cardiovascular regulation during exercise.
Describe cardiovascular regulation during exercise.
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Describe cardiovascular regulation during circulatory shock.
Describe cardiovascular regulation during circulatory shock.
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Describe the lymphatic system.
Describe the lymphatic system.
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Describe lymphatic vessels.
Describe lymphatic vessels.
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How does lymph move?
How does lymph move?
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Describe the two ducts of the lymphatic system.
Describe the two ducts of the lymphatic system.
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Describe lymphatic tissue.
Describe lymphatic tissue.
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What are Peyer's patches?
What are Peyer's patches?
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Describe the tonsils.
Describe the tonsils.
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Describe the lymph nodes.
Describe the lymph nodes.
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Describe the spleen.
Describe the spleen.
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Describe the thymus.
Describe the thymus.
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What are the types of immunity?
What are the types of immunity?
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What types of immunity fall under innate immunity?
What types of immunity fall under innate immunity?
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Study Notes
Blood Vessel Functions
- Blood vessels carry blood, generating pressure, and facilitate nutrient, waste, and gas exchange.
- The generation of blood pressure is not a function of blood vessels.
Blood Vessel Structures
- Capillaries are the primary vessels for gas and nutrient exchange.
- Blood vessel walls consist of three layers: tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia; tunica fibrosa is not a layer.
Blood Flow Pathways
- Blood flows from the heart through elastic arteries, muscular arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
- A thoroughfare channel connects an arteriole to a venule directly.
Blood Pressure Dynamics
- Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is calculated as MAP = cardiac output (CO) x peripheral resistance (PR).
- Vasomotor tone describes sympathetic stimulation causing partial constriction of arteries.
Fluid Exchange at Capillaries
- Diffusion and osmosis are key processes allowing fluid exchange across capillary walls.
Local Control Mechanisms
- Arterioles vasodilating and precapillary sphincters relaxing increase blood flow to tissues.
Receptors and Responses
- Baroreceptors detect arterial stretch and regulate blood pressure.
- Epinephrine induces vasodilation in muscles and vasoconstriction in non-essential areas.
Renin-Angiotensin System
- Renin release leads to the conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, influencing blood pressure regulation and fluid balance.
- Aldosterone conserves sodium and water, increasing blood volume.
Lymphatic System Overview
- The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels and lymphoid organs, returning fluid to the bloodstream.
- Lacteals in the small intestine absorb fats, while lymph nodes filter lymph and activate immune responses.
Immunity Types
- The immune system features innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific) immunity.
- Natural killer cells are non-specific lymphocytes targeting tumor and virus-infected cells.
Inflammatory Response
- Inflammation triggers vasodilation and increased vascular permeability, attracting phagocytes to the site of injury or infection.
Antibody Structure and Function
- Antibodies consist of two heavy chains and two light chains; their variable region binds to specific antigens.
Blood Pressure Regulation
- Short-term regulation involves baroreceptors and chemoreceptors adjusting heart rate and vessel diameter based on pressure and gas levels.
- Long-term regulation utilizes renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanisms and fluid shift mechanisms to maintain blood volume and pressure.
Cardiovascular Responses
- During exercise, blood flow to muscles increases while peripheral resistance decreases; outputs like heart rate and stroke volume rise.
- In circulatory shock, baroreceptor reflexes and hormonal responses work to increase blood pressure despite severe drops.
Lymph Nodes and Spleen
- Lymph nodes filter lymph and activate immune responses; they are strategically located in areas like the inguinal and axillary regions.
- The spleen, containing red and white pulp, functions in immune response and blood filtration.
Interferons and Complement System
- Interferons help neighboring cells resist viral infection and activate immune cells.
- Complement proteins facilitate destruction of pathogens via cell lysis, phagocytosis, and inflammation, operating through classical or alternative activation pathways.
Effects of Aging and Vascular Health
- Atherosclerosis involves material deposition in artery walls.
- Arteriosclerosis results in loss of elasticity in major arteries, affecting blood pressure regulation.
Gravity and Blood Pressure
- Gravity impacts blood pressure: it raises pressure below the heart and lowers it above while a standing position can complicate venous return due to hydrostatic pressure.### Inflammation and Tissue Repair
- Local inflammation leads to classic symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function.
- Systemic inflammation symptoms include increased neutrophil counts, fever, and shock.
Adaptive Immunity
- The adaptive immune system recognizes specific foreign substances and has memory.
- It amplifies the inflammatory response and activates the complement system.
- Consists of two overlapping arms:
- Antibody-mediated immunity (via antibodies in blood and lymph).
- Cell-mediated immunity (involves lymphocytes).
Antigens and Immune Cells
- Antigens are large molecules that trigger an adaptive immune response, categorized into foreign (not produced by the body) and self-antigens (produced by the body).
- B cells are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity, working alongside antibodies.
- T cells are focused on cell-mediated immunity, targeting infected or abnormal cells.
MHC Class I vs. MHC Class II Molecules
- MHC Class I molecules present antigens on nucleated cells, leading to their destruction.
- MHC Class II molecules present antigens on antigen-presenting cells, leading to activation of various immune cells.
- Lymphocyte activation occurs when their receptors combine with a specific antigenic determinant (epitope).
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Description
This quiz covers the essential functions and structures of blood vessels, including the pathways of blood flow and the dynamics of blood pressure. It also explores the mechanisms of fluid exchange at capillaries. Test your knowledge on how these components work together in the circulatory system.