Human Biology Overview

Drug administration through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

Drug administration that bypasses the GI tract.

Drug metabolism in the liver before reaching systemic circulation, reducing effectiveness.

Drug administration through the mouth, absorbed via GI tract.

Drug delivery directly into the bloodstream, bypassing GI tract.

Time it takes for a drug to produce its effect after administration.

Drugs absorbed in the intestines, then metabolized by the liver.

Drug metabolism in the liver by reducing efficacy.

Process of drug entering the bloodstream after administration.

Movement of drugs throughout the body.

Liver's breakdown of drugs into active or inactive forms.

Variables affecting how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated.

Effects that occur when two or more drugs are taken together.

Different routes of drug entry into bloodstream affecting speed and effectiveness.

Drugs bind to proteins, altering their distribution and potential interactions.

A chemical released by the body during an immune response, causing inflammation, itching, and other allergic symptoms.

A neurotransmitter that plays a role in arousal, focus, and the fight-or-flight response.

A neurotransmitter that influences mood, sleep, appetite, and overall well-being.

A hormone often called the 'love hormone', associated with bonding, social connection, and maternal behaviors.

A neurotransmitter that transmits pain signals to the brain, contributing to chronic pain conditions.

A hormone produced by the embryo and placenta during pregnancy, responsible for maintaining the corpus luteum and supporting early pregnancy.

A hormone produced by the corpus luteum and placenta that stimulates the growth of the uterus, breasts, and external genitalia during pregnancy.

A hormone produced by the corpus luteum and placenta, vital for maintaining a successful pregnancy by supporting early embryo nutrition and preventing uterine contractions.

The placenta develops from the trophoblast cells after the blastocyst implants in the endometrium.

The placenta serves as a vital organ, facilitating the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between the mother and developing fetus.

Two or more drugs working together to produce an effect greater than the sum of their individual effects.

Two or more drugs working together to produce an effect greater than the sum of their individual effects.

One drug reduces or blocks the effect of another drug.

A drug that activates a receptor to produce its effect.

A drug that blocks a receptor, preventing other substances from activating it.

A drug effect that increases the risk of heart arrhythmias.

The ratio of a drug's toxic dose to its effective dose.

The desired and intended effect of a drug.

Unintended harmful effects of a drug at normal doses.

Secondary effects that often occur at therapeutic doses.

Branch-like extensions receiving signals from other neurons.

Processes incoming signals, contains the cell's nucleus.

Carries the electrical signal away from the cell body to the synapse.

Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.

The stage of prenatal development from week 9 to week 40, characterized by organ growth and maturation.

The pattern of growth and development that proceeds from the head downward.

The pattern of growth and development that proceeds from the center of the body outward.

Specific time frames during development where external factors have a significant impact on outcomes.

Inherited traits that influence growth and development, including physical characteristics and predispositions.

External factors that impact growth and development, such as nutrition, toxins, and emotional support.

Cultural practices that influence growth and behavior, such as diet and child-rearing styles.

Overall health, including chronic illnesses and nutrition, affects growth and development.

Essential for DNA synthesis and neural tube development, especially crucial during early pregnancy.

Critical for red blood cell production and oxygen transport, especially important in infants, toddlers, and pregnant women.

Essential for bone and dental development, particularly important during pregnancy, lactation, and adolescence.

Promotes calcium absorption and bone health, obtained from sunlight, fortified foods, and fatty fish.

Support brain development and cognitive functions.

Essential for vision and immune function, available in carrots, sweet potatoes, and spinach.

Neonates and infants experience slower gastric emptying, altered pH, and delayed enzyme activity, affecting drug absorption.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a class of medications that reduce pain, fever, and inflammation by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins. They act by blocking COX enzymes, specifically COX-1 and COX-2, which are responsible for producing prostaglandins.

NSAIDs work by inhibiting COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. These enzymes are responsible for producing prostaglandins, which are involved in inflammation, pain, and fever. By blocking COX enzymes, NSAIDs reduce the production of prostaglandins and, consequently, reduce pain, fever, and inflammation.

NSAIDs can cause several side effects, including gastrointestinal ulcers and bleeding, renal damage, and cardiovascular problems. Long-term use is associated with increased risk of these side effects.

Acetaminophen, also known as paracetamol, is an over-the-counter (OTC) analgesic and antipyretic drug. Acetaminophen is used for mild to moderate pain, fever reduction, and some cases of headache.

Acetaminophen primarily inhibits the production of prostaglandins in the central nervous system, mainly in the brain. It has less effect than NSAIDs on the periphery.

Overdosing on acetaminophen can lead to liver toxicity, which can be serious. It's vital to follow the recommended dosage and be careful when combining acetaminophen-containing medications to avoid exceeding the safe daily limit.

COX-2 inhibitors are a newer class of NSAIDs that selectively block COX-2 enzyme without significantly inhibiting COX-1. This selectivity makes them effective against pain and inflammation, but with a potentially lower risk of GI side effects than NSAIDs.

While they might have fewer GI side effects compared to traditional NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors have been linked to increased cardiovascular risks, such as heart attack and stroke. They can also affect the kidneys.