Human Anatomy and Physiology Overview

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of ATP in living organisms?

To store genetic information

To act as a structural component of cells

To serve as a transport molecule

To power chemical reactions (correct)

Which vitamins are precursors for NAD+ and FAD respectively?

Vitamin B2 and Vitamin B3

Vitamin C and Vitamin D

Vitamin B3 and Vitamin B2 (correct)

Vitamin B1 and Vitamin B3

What happens to ATP when it releases energy?

It becomes glucose

It converts to AMP

It transforms into NADH

It converts to ADP (correct)

Which of the following statements about the plasma membrane is true?

It contains integral and peripheral proteins Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of glycogen in the body?

To store energy for later use Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism for ATP synthesis requires oxygen?

Electron transport chain Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the lipid bilayer structure of the plasma membrane?

It consists of 75% phospholipids and includes cholesterol Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of glycocalyx in cells?

To provide a biological marker for cell identification Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of visceral serosa in the body?

It directly touches the organ. Signup and view all the answers

Which structures are found in the right upper quadrant of the abdominopelvic cavity?

Most of your liver, gallbladder, and right kidney. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the human body is primarily made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen?

96% Signup and view all the answers

How can an atom become an anion?

By gaining one or more electrons. Signup and view all the answers

What primarily determines the chemical properties of an atom?

The number of electrons. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes isotopes?

Isotopes have the same atomic number but different atomic masses. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following elements is one of the lesser elements that make up about 3.6% of the human body?

Iron Signup and view all the answers

What happens to radioisotopes over time?

They lose subatomic particles in a predictable manner. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of non-coding RNA in the genome?

They play essential roles in regulating DNA and RNA. Signup and view all the answers

Which best describes the structure of chromatin?

Clusters of nucleosomes connected by DNA. Signup and view all the answers

In the process of transcription, which strand of DNA is used to create the mRNA complement?

The template strand. Signup and view all the answers

What do activator proteins bind to in order to encourage gene transcription?

Enhancers. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of codons in DNA?

They specify a particular amino acid in protein synthesis. Signup and view all the answers

What role do transcription factors play in the transcription process?

They facilitate the binding of RNA polymerase to the DNA. Signup and view all the answers

How many total codons are known to specify an amino acid or a stop signal?

<ol start="64"> <li></li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of chromatin condensing during cell division?

Protection of chromatin structure. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during meiosis I that enhances genetic diversity?

Independent assortment of chromosomes Signup and view all the answers

How does meiosis II compare to mitosis?

Meiosis II results in haploid cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of autophagy in a cell?

To recycle non-functional organelles Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes apoptosis?

It is a programmed cell death mechanism. Signup and view all the answers

What leads to the cumulative effects known as the wear and tear theory of aging?

Chemical damage and free radicals Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of telomeres in cell division?

To protect chromosome ends Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of crossing over during meiosis?

It results in exchange of genetic material between chromosomes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly distinguishes mitosis from meiosis?

Mitosis involves one round of division; meiosis involves two. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of peripheral proteins in a cell?

They are attached to the inside or outside of the cell and can function as enzymes. Signup and view all the answers

How do G protein-like receptors affect cellular processes?

By activating G proteins that in turn activate other enzymes. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes active transport from passive transport?

Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient and requires energy. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes tight junctions?

They are integral proteins that prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space. Signup and view all the answers

What does the glycocalyx do for cells?

It serves as a biological marker for cell-to-cell recognition. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes secondary active transport?

It uses energy from ionic gradients created by primary active transport to drive transport. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about antiporters is true?

They move one substance into the cell while transporting a different one out of the cell. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key function of desmosomes?

They join adjacent cells to prevent tearing under stress. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Body Cavities and Serosa

Parietal serosa lines the internal body walls.
Visceral serosa covers the organs.

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ): Liver (most), gallbladder, right kidney, parts of small and large intestines.
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ): Intestines, right ovary, appendix, cecum, ascending colon.
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ): Stomach, spleen, pancreas (most), left kidney, parts of small and large intestines.
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ): Intestines, left ovary, descending and sigmoid colon.

Matter and Energy

Matter is the "stuff" of the universe.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion; potential energy is stored energy.

Elements of the Human Body

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen constitute 96% of the human body.
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron make up about 3.6%.
Trace elements (e.g., aluminum, boron, chromium) comprise <0.4%.

Atomic Structure

Protons are positively charged and located in the nucleus.
Neutrons are neutrally charged and located in the nucleus.
Electrons are negatively charged and found in orbitals. An atom's chemical properties are determined by its electrons.

Electron Shell Model

Atoms are electrically neutral.
Different elements have different numbers of protons.
Atomic number: Number of protons.
Atomic mass: Number of protons and neutrons.

Isotopes and Radioisotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with varying neutron numbers (same atomic number, different atomic mass).
Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes that decay over time, releasing subatomic particles. They are useful for dating.

Ions

Ions are charged atoms formed by gaining or losing electrons.
Anions are negatively charged (gained electrons).
Cations are positively charged (lost electrons).

Mixtures and Compounds

All molecules in a compound are identical.
NAD+ (from Vitamin B3) is reduced to NADH + H+.
FAD (from Vitamin B2) is reduced to FADH2.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

ATP is the primary energy currency of life.
It temporarily stores chemical energy and transfers it to enzymes.
ATP hydrolysis to ADP releases energy to power reactions. ADP is then recharged to ATP.

ATP Synthesis

Two mechanisms produce ATP:
- Substrate-level phosphorylation (does not require oxygen, e.g., glycolysis).
- Oxidative phosphorylation (requires oxygen as the final electron acceptor; electron transport chain).

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

Glycogenesis: Glucose to glycogen (storage).
Glycogenolysis: Glycogen breakdown to glucose (when blood glucose is low).

Cell Theory

The cell is the basic unit of life.
Cells demonstrate common ancestry.

Extracellular Materials

Interstitial fluid, blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid.
Cellular secretions (hormones, enzymes).
Extracellular matrix (structural support).

Plasma Membrane

Semi-permeable barrier separating intracellular and extracellular fluids.
Structure: Integral proteins (span the membrane), peripheral proteins (attached to membrane surfaces), glycocalyx (carbohydrate-rich outer layer).

Lipid Bilayer

75% phospholipids (hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails).
20% cholesterol (stability).
5% glycolipids.

Membrane Proteins

Integral proteins: Span the membrane; involved in transport (channels, transporters), receptors, enzymes, linkers.
Peripheral proteins: Attached to membrane surfaces; enzymes, mechanical functions.

Membrane Receptors & G Protein-Coupled Receptors

Ligand binding activates receptors, initiating cellular processes.
G protein-coupled receptors indirectly cause cellular changes via G proteins and second messengers.

Glycocalyx

Cell surface carbohydrate coat; acts as a biological marker for cell recognition.
Changes in cancer cells can help them evade the immune system.

Cell Junctions

Tight junctions: Prevent passage between cells.
Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions; resist stress.
Gap junctions: Channels for small molecule passage between cells.

Membrane Transport

Passive transport: No energy required; high to low concentration.
Active transport: Requires energy; against concentration gradient.
- Primary active transport: Direct ATP use (e.g., ion pumps).
- Secondary active transport: Uses ion gradients created by primary transport.
  - Antiporters: Move substances in opposite directions.
  - Symporters: Move substances in the same direction.

Nucleus

Contains DNA; site of transcription.
Nucleolus: rRNA synthesis; usually one or two per cell.

Chromatin and Chromosomes

Chromatin: DNA and histone proteins (nucleosomes).
Chromosomes: Condensed chromatin during cell division.

Non-Coding RNA

Most of the genome (~98%) doesn't code for proteins.
Non-coding RNAs regulate gene expression.

Gene Regulation

Transcription factors control gene expression (activator proteins, repressors, silencers).

Protein Synthesis

Genes code for polypeptide chains.
DNA codons (triplets) specify amino acids.

The Genetic Code

Translates DNA/RNA codons into amino acids.

Transcription

DNA to mRNA: RNA polymerase creates a complementary mRNA copy of a DNA template strand. Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T).

Translation

mRNA to protein: tRNA transfers amino acids to ribosomes for protein synthesis.

Meiosis

Two rounds of cell division; produces haploid (n) gametes.
Crossing over and independent assortment generate genetic diversity.
Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate.
Meiosis II: Sister chromatids separate.

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Mitosis: One division, diploid (2n) daughter cells identical to parent.
Meiosis: Two divisions, haploid (n) daughter cells genetically diverse.

Autophagy

Cellular self-eating; disposal of damaged organelles via autophagosomes and lysosomes.

Ubiquitin-Proteasome System

Ubiquitin tags proteins for destruction by proteasomes.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death; activated by caspases.

Aging Theories

Wear and tear, mitochondrial dysfunction, immune system decline, genetic factors (telomere shortening).

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Description

This quiz covers essential concepts in human anatomy and physiology, including body cavities, serosa, abdominopelvic quadrants, and the elements that constitute the human body. Additionally, it touches on fundamental principles of matter and energy, as well as atomic structure. Test your understanding of these important topics in the field of health sciences.