Human Anatomy and Physiology

Skeletal System post quiz ch 4-5

two divisions of the skeletal system: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton, which work together to provide support and protection for the body.
There are five main classes of bones in the human body, classified based on their shape: long bones (e.g., femur, humerus), short bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals), flat bones (e.g., sternum, ribs), irregular bones (e.g., vertebrae, bones of the face), and sesamoid bones (e.g., patella, pisiform).:
List 3 cells of bone: Osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts are the three primary cells responsible for bone development and maintenance.
Cartilage cell: chondrocyte, a type of cell responsible for producing and maintaining the cartilage matrix, which is composed of collagen and proteoglycans.
Three classes of joints:
- Synovial joints: These are the most common type of joint and are characterized by a space between the bones that is filled with synovial fluid. Synovial joints are freely movable, allowing for a wide range of motion. Examples include the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle joints.
- Cartilaginous joints: These joints are connected by cartilage and allow for limited movement. Examples include the joints between the vertebrae in the spine and the joint that connects the ribs to the sternum.
- Fibrous joints: These joints are connected by fibrous connective tissue and do not allow for movement. Examples include the joints between the bones of the skull and the joint that connects the teeth to the jawbone.
Two types of ossification: Intramembranous and Endochondral.
- Intramembranous ossification: This type of ossification occurs in the development of flat bones, such as those found in the skull, and involves the formation of bone tissue directly from the mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue).
- Endochondral ossification: This type of ossification occurs in the development of long bones, such as those found in the limbs, and involves the replacement of cartilage models with bone tissue.
Functions of the skeletal system:
- Support: The skeletal system provides a framework that supports the body's muscles, organs, and tissues, allowing for movement and maintenance of posture.
- Protection: The skeletal system protects internal organs, such as the brain, heart, and lungs, by encasing them in a protective cage of bone.
- Movement: The skeletal system, in conjunction with the muscular system, enables movement of the body through the contraction and relaxation of muscles attached to bones.
- Blood cell production: The bones in the skeletal system, particularly the bones in the bone marrow, are responsible for producing blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- Mineral storage: The skeletal system acts as a storage site for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, which are essential for many bodily functions.
- Endocrine functions: The skeletal system, particularly the bones, produces hormones such as osteocalcin, which helps regulate bone metabolism and glucose levels.

Muscular System

Myofilaments of a sarcomere:
- Thick filaments (myosin)
- Thin filaments (actin and tropomyosin)
Ions and minerals necessary for muscle contraction:
- Calcium
- Potassium
- Sodium
Neurotransmitter released in a neuromuscular junction:
- Acetylcholine
Anaerobic Metabolism:
- Glycolysis: converts glucose into pyruvate
- Takes place in: cytoplasm
- Often starts with: glucose
- Final product: pyruvate
- Produces: 2 ATP
Aerobic Metabolism:
- Definition: uses oxygen to produce ATP
- Metabolic pathways:
  - Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
  - Electron transport chain
- Takes place in: mitochondria
- Citric acid cycle produces less ATP than electron transport chain

Anatomical Directions

Anterior refers to the front of the body
Posterior refers to the back of the body
Medial refers to a location near the midline of the body
Lateral refers to a location away from the midline of the body
Superior refers to a location above or higher than another structure
Inferior refers to a location below or lower than another structure
Superficial refers to a location near the surface of the body
Deep refers to a location far from the surface of the body
Proximal refers to a location near the point of attachment or origin
Distal refers to a location far from the point of attachment or origin

Chemistry and Biology

Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment
An atom is the smallest unit of a chemical element
A proton is a positively charged subatomic particle
A neutron is a subatomic particle with no charge
An electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle
Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom
Atomic mass is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
Isotope is a version of an element with a different number of neutrons
Dissociate means to separate or break apart
Organelle is a specialized structure within a cell

Body Fluids

Extracellular fluid is the fluid outside of cells
Intracellular fluid is the fluid inside of cells
Interstitial fluid is the fluid between cells

Cellular Transport

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration