HSC 12 Chemistry: The Solid State

• Chemistry for the 12th HSC board covers a range of topics, focusing on both theoretical understanding and practical application.
• It encompasses physical chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and organic chemistry.
• States of matter, solutions, chemical thermodynamics, electrochemistry, chemical kinetics, and surface chemistry are important topics.
• Coordination compounds, d and f block elements as well as the properties and reactions of haloalkanes, haloarenes, alcohols, phenols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amines, and polymers form a core part of the syllabus.
• Biomolecules is also an important and relatively simple chapter

Solid State

• Crystalline and amorphous solids are differentiated based on long-range order.
• Crystalline solids are classified into molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent solids.
• Crystal lattices and unit cells describe the arrangement of particles in a crystal.
• Primitive, body-centered, face-centered, and end-centered cubic unit cells relate cell parameters to the radius of constituent particles.
• Packing efficiency is calculated for simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic lattices.
• Point defects, including Schottky and Frenkel defects, affect solid properties.
• Electrical properties of solids are described by band theory and include conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
• Doping creates n-type and p-type semiconductors.
• Magnetic properties include paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and ferrimagnetism.

Solutions

• Molarity, molality, mole fraction, and parts per million (ppm) are units for expressing solution concentration.
• Henry’s law relates gas solubility to partial pressure.
• Raoult’s law describes the vapor pressure of solutions.
• Positive and negative deviations from Raoult’s law indicate the type of intermolecular interactions in solutions.
• Azeotropes are constant boiling mixtures.
• Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles and include relative lowering of vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, and osmotic pressure.
• Van’t Hoff factor accounts for the dissociation or association of solute particles in solution.

Chemical Thermodynamics

• Concepts include: system, surroundings, types of systems, processes, state functions, internal energy and enthalpy.
• First law of thermodynamics states the conservation of energy.
• Hess’s law calculates enthalpy changes for reactions.
• Enthalpies of formation, combustion, and neutralization are important concepts.
• Second law of thermodynamics introduces entropy as a measure of disorder.
• Gibbs free energy predicts spontaneity of a reaction.
• Relationships between Gibbs energy, enthalpy, and entropy are ΔG = ΔH – TΔS.

Electrochemistry

• Electrochemical cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy and vice versa.
• Standard electrode potential measures the tendency of a species to be reduced.
• Nernst equation relates cell potential to concentration.
• Electrolytic cells use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous reactions.
• Faraday’s laws of electrolysis quantify the amount of substance produced during electrolysis.
• Batteries are galvanic cells used as a source of electrical energy (primary and secondary).
• Fuel cells convert the energy from the combustion of fuels into electrical energy.
• Corrosion is an electrochemical process.

Chemical Kinetics

• Rate of reaction measures the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.
• Factors affecting reaction rates include concentration, temperature, and catalyst.
• Rate law expresses the relationship between the rate of a reaction and the concentration of reactants.
• Order of a reaction is determined experimentally.
• Molecularity is the number of reacting species in an elementary reaction.
• Integrated rate equations determine reactant concentration at a given time for zero, first, and second-order reactions.
• Half-life is the time required for half of the reactant to be consumed.
• Arrhenius equation relates the rate constant to temperature and activation energy.
• Catalysis increases reaction rates by providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
• Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis differ in the phase of the catalyst and reactants.

Surface Chemistry

• Adsorption: Physisorption and chemisorption are two types.
• Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids.
• Catalysis: homogenous and heterogenous, activity and selectivity of solid catalysts, enzyme catalysis.
• Colloidal state: distinction between true solutions, colloids and suspensions; lyophilic, lyophobic, multimolecular and macromolecular colloids; properties of colloids; Tyndall effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis, coagulation; emulsion-types of emulsions.

d and f Block Elements

• Electronic configuration, variable oxidation states, magnetic properties, catalytic properties, and formation of colored compounds are general characteristics of d-block elements.
• Preparation, properties, and uses of potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate are important.
• Lanthanoid contraction explains the similarity in size of the second and third-row transition metals.
• Chemical reactivity of lanthanoids and actinoids.

Coordination Compounds

• Werner’s theory describes the structure of coordination compounds.
• Ligands are classified as monodentate, bidentate, or polydentate.
• Coordination number indicates the number of ligands attached to the central metal ion.
• IUPAC nomenclature is used to name coordination compounds.
• Isomerism includes structural and stereoisomerism.
• Bonding in coordination compounds is explained by valence bond theory (VBT) and crystal field theory (CFT).
• CFT explains the splitting of d-orbitals in tetrahedral and octahedral complexes.
• Color and magnetic properties are explained by CFT.

Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

• Nomenclature and nature of C-X bond are basics.
• Methods of preparation of haloalkanes include from alcohols, by free radical halogenation and by electrophilic substitution.
• Physical and chemical reactions of haloalkanes: SN1, SN2 mechanisms, elimination reactions.
• Uses and environmental effects of haloalkanes.
• Methods of preparation of haloarenes includes direct halogenation and from diazonium salts.
• Physical and chemical reactions of haloarenes.

Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

• Nomenclature, methods of preparation of alcohols from alkenes, from carbonyl compounds, and using Grignard reagents are important.
• Physical and chemical reactions of alcohols: acidity of alcohols, esterification, oxidation.
• Methods of preparation of phenols includes from haloarenes, from benzene sulfonic acid and from diazonium salts.
• Physical and chemical reactions of phenols: acidic nature, electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions, Kolbe’s reaction, Reimer-Tiemann reaction.
• Methods of preparation of ethers includes dehydration of alcohols and Williamson synthesis.
• Physical and chemical reactions of ethers.

Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

• Nomenclature and structure of carbonyl group.
• Preparation of aldehydes and ketones from alcohols, from acyl chlorides, from nitriles and from hydrocarbons.
• Physical and chemical reactions of aldehydes and ketones: Nucleophilic addition reactions, oxidation, reduction, reactions due to α-hydrogen acidity, aldol condensation, cross aldol condensation, Cannizzaro reaction.
• Preparation of carboxylic acids includes from alcohols, from alkylbenzenes, from nitriles and amides and from Grignard reagents.
• Physical and chemical reactions of carboxylic acids: acidity of carboxylic acids, esterification, reactions involving -COOH group, Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction.

Amines

• Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation of amines which includes reduction of nitro compounds, ammonolysis of alkyl halides, reduction of nitriles and amides and Gabriel phthalimide synthesis.
• Physical and chemical reactions of amines: basic character of amines, acylation, carbylamine reaction, reaction with nitrous acid, electrophilic substitution reactions.
• Diazonium salts: preparation and chemical reaction.

Polymers

• Classification of polymers: natural and synthetic, homopolymers and copolymers, addition and condensation, based on source, structure and intermolecular forces.
• Polymerization reactions include addition and condensation polymerization.
• Copolymerization is the formation of polymers from two or more different monomers.
• Some important polymers: polythene, nylon, polyesters, bakelite, rubber - natural and synthetic.

Biomolecules

• Carbohydrates: Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccharides (glucose and fructose), oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen), importance.
• Proteins: general structure of α-amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins, denaturation of proteins, enzymes.
• Vitamins: classification and functions.
• Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.