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Questions and Answers

Which type of heart has no neural control to regulate pumping?

  • Three-chambered heart (correct)
  • Heart with a ventricle
  • Heart with a sinus venosus
  • Heart with an atrium

    • What is the main difference between the circulatory system of open and closed systems?

  • Extent of the capillary system (correct)
  • Red blood cells containing hemoglobin
  • Presence of blood sinuses
  • Neural control of the heart

    • How do O2 and CO2 mainly get transported in organisms with no blood specifically involved in their transport?

  • Through red blood cells
  • By neural control of the heart
  • Via diffusion (correct)
  • By respiratory pigments

    • What is the function of flame cells in nonvertebrate chordates?

    <p>Cellular filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In ancestral vertebrates, how are body fluids different from those of nonvertebrate chordates?

    <p>Different ionic composition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of archinephric ducts in ancestral vertebrates?

    <p>Excreting waste to the cloaca</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference in development between vertebrates and invertebrates?

    <p>Vertebrates use inductive interactions between developing structures to determine cell types, while invertebrates have predetermined cell lineages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Hox genes in development?

    <p>Regulate the expression of a network of other genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which germ layer forms the nervous system, including most of the sense organs?

    <p>Ectoderm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many Hox genes do vertebrates typically have?

    <p>Thirteen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which germ layer forms the rest of the digestive tract's lining as well as the glands associated with the gut?

    <p>Endoderm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes vertebrates in terms of Hox genes?

    <p>They have undergone duplications of the entire Hox complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When did the first duplication event of the Hox complex occur?

    <p>Start of vertebrate evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the mesoderm germ layer form?

    <p>Muscles, skeleton, connective tissues, circulatory system, and urogenital system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is formed by the endoderm germ layer?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does Neural Crest tissue play in embryological development?

    <p>Forms novel structures, especially in the head region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the mesoderm germ layer considered significant in development?

    <p>It is the last layer to appear in animal evolution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the doubling and redoubling of the Hox gene sequence impact vertebrates?

    <p>Allowed for more structural complexity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue layer lies between the dermis and the fascia overlying the muscles in tetrapods?

    <p>Hypodermis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the subcutaneous fat stored in the hypodermis of tetrapods?

    <p>Generating heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of mineral is unique to vertebrates and provides resistance to acid, especially during anaerobic metabolism?

    <p>Hydroxyapatite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might vertebrates have evolved a skeleton made of hydroxyapatite instead of calcite?

    <p>To resist blood acidification during anaerobic metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the hydroxyapatite crystals aligned on in the mineralized tissues of vertebrates?

    <p>Matrix of collagenous fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which region of tetrapods are subcutaneous striated muscles found?

    <p>Hypodermis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is another term used to refer to the pharyngeal arches?

    <p>Visceral arches</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term is used to describe the gill arches in the passage?

    <p>Visceral arches</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the embryonic name for the structures that are referred to as gill arches in adults?

    <p>Pharyngeal arches</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'branchial arches' mean?

    <p>Arch bearing gill tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the splanchnocranium and neural-crest tissue?

    <p>Splanchnocranium is formed only from neural-crest tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which group of organisms is a structure functionally equivalent to the vertebrate splanchnocranium present?

    <p>Cephalochordates and hemichordates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of the kidney in volume regulation in freshwater environments?

    <p>Regulating volume and concentration of body fluids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ions are primarily regulated by the gills?

    <p>Monovalent ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the notochord in vertebrates?

    <p>Provides support for body muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of myomeres in vertebrates?

    <p>They have a more complex W shape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fins are absent in the initial stages of development?

    <p>Lateral fins and median fins besides the tail fin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the presence of dorsal fins indicative of in vertebrates?

    <p>They are present in all vertebrates except hagfishes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of neural crest tissue in vertebrate embryonic development?

    <p>Neural crest tissue is a fourth germ layer unique to vertebrates that gives rise to a variety of structures, including pigment cells, and plays a crucial role in shaping the vertebrate body plan.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does neural-crest tissue in vertebrates differ from a similar population of cells found in amphioxus?

    <p>In vertebrates, neural-crest cells migrate throughout the body and differentiate into different cell types, while in amphioxus, these cells do not migrate or change into different cell types.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are placodes and how do they contribute to vertebrate development?

    <p>Placodes are epidermal thickenings that give rise to sensory organs like the nose, eyes, and inner ear in vertebrates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What morphological feature shared between tunicates and vertebrates may indicate a precursor to the vertebrate neural crest?

    <p>The presence of cells resembling migratory neural-crest cells in the larval stage of a tunicate species, which differentiate into pigment cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What implications would the presence of eyes and a muscular pharynx in the Cambrian chordate Haikouella have in terms of neural crest evolution?

    <p>The presence of eyes and a muscular pharynx in Haikouella would imply the presence of neural crest in this animal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do neural-crest cells contribute to the formation of structures in vertebrates?

    <p>Neural-crest cells migrate throughout the body and differentiate into various cell types, contributing to the development of structures like pigment cells, craniofacial bones, and peripheral nervous system components.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the exception in the genes coding for the vertebrate brain found in amphioxus?

    <p>those directing formation of the telencephalon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What reinforces the belief that differences in gene expression are as important as differences in gene presence?

    <p>the presence of vertebrate brain genes in amphioxus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are two unique vertebrate features mentioned in the text?

    <p>multilayered epidermis and endothelium-lined blood vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main systems contrasted between vertebrates and nonvertebrate chordates in Table 2-1 and Figure 2-4?

    <p>heart, brain, and circulatory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some structures found in a generalized chordate like amphioxus?

    <p>cerebral vesicle, notochord, nerve cord, pharynx, atrium, gill slit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the tripartite brain in hypothetical primitive vertebrates?

    <p>It represents an early stage of brain evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the subcutaneous striated muscles found in the hypodermis of mammals?

    <p>Enable them to flick the skin to get rid of a fly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is hydroxyapatite preferred over calcite in vertebrates' mineralized tissues?

    <p>Hydroxyapatite is more resistant to acid, making it suitable for anaerobic metabolism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the composition of vertebrate mineralized tissues.

    <p>Complex matrix of collagenous fibers, cells secreting a tissue matrix, and hydroxyapatite crystals aligned on collagenous fibers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the structure of hydroxyapatite crystals in vertebrate mineralized tissues.

    <p>Aligned on the collagenous fibers in layers with alternating directions, similar to plywood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is subcutaneous fat stored in tetrapods?

    <p>Hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue layer contains collagenous and elastic fibers in tetrapods?

    <p>Hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure from which teeth form in jawed vertebrates?

    <p>Dermal papilla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are teeth of jawed vertebrates structurally composed?

    <p>Inner layer of dentine and outer layer of enamel or enameloid around a central pulp cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What controversial debate exists regarding the origin of dental tissues?

    <p>Whether they are always derived from the ectoderm or can form from the endoderm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the embryonic origin of teeth in some fishes, contrary to the general belief?

    <p>Endoderm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the basic structure of teeth in jawed vertebrates.

    <p>Inner dentine layer, outer enamel/enameloid layer, central pulp cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure from which shark scales (dermal denticles) form?

    <p>Dermal papilla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Vertebrate Characteristics

    • Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system with a heart that pumps blood throughout the body.
    • Heart has three chambers: sinus venosus, atrium, and ventricle.
    • No neural control of the heart in early vertebrates, but present in all except hagfishes.

    Circulatory System

    • Closed circulatory system without blood sinuses, except in hagfishes and lampreys.
    • Extensive capillary system present in vertebrates.
    • Blood involved in the transport of respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) with the help of hemoglobin.

    Excretion and Osmoregulation

    • Specialized glomerular kidneys present in vertebrates for ultrafiltration of blood.
    • Kidneys lead to the outside via the archinephric ducts to the cloaca.
    • Body fluids are more dilute than seawater, except in hagfishes.

    Development and Germ Layers

    • Vertebrates have three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.
    • Ectoderm forms the outermost layer, including skin and nervous system.
    • Endoderm forms the digestive tract and associated glands.
    • Mesoderm forms muscles, skeleton, and circulatory and urogenital systems.

    Skeletal System

    • Hydroxyapatite, a complex compound of calcium and phosphorus, is unique to vertebrates.
    • Skeleton made of hydroxyapatite is resistant to acidification of the blood.
    • Hydroxyapatite crystals are aligned on collagenous fibers in layers with alternating directions.

    Hox Genes

    • Hox genes regulate the expression of a hierarchical network of genes controlling development from front to back along the body.
    • Vertebrates have more Hox genes than other animals, with duplications of the entire Hox complex.

    Neural Crest

    • Neural crest is a new tissue in embryological development that forms novel structures in vertebrates, especially in the head region.
    • Neural-crest cells originate at the lateral boundary of the neural plate and migrate throughout the body to form various structures.

    Placodes

    • Placodes are epidermal thickenings that give rise to complex sensory organs, including the nose, eyes, and inner ear.
    • Placodes are similar to neural crest but have a different origin.

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