How People Learn: Theories and Cognitive Neuroscience

How People Learn

• Learning involves definition and various types of changes.
• Principles differ from theories of learning, and the latter holds more importance
• A conceptual framework outlines the evolution of learning theories.
• Brain development includes the evolution of the brain
• MacLean's Triune Brain highlights Central vs. Peripheral Nervous Systems.
• Neurons and synapses' natures and functions are key.
• Key phenomena include: Synaptogenesis, synaptic pruning, myelination, sensitive/critical periods, plasticity, experience-expectant, and -dependent learning.

Evolution of Learning Theories

• Behaviorism involves learning like an animal.
• Cognitivism involves learning like a machine.
• Constructivism involves learning like a human.
• Connectivism/Transhumanism involves learning like a Cyborg.

Cognitive Neuroscience

• Relates to cognitive processes.

Behaviorism

• Environment and British Empiricism posits learning as a function of contingencies (reinforcers and punishers).
• Includes classical and operant conditioning.

Social Learning Theory

• Incorporates social cognitive theory

Cognitivism

• Person’s learning occurs as a function of innate structures and internal processes through Continental Rationalism.
• Involves Information Processing Theories.

Psychological Constructivism

• Explores social constructivism

Principles: Definitions & Examples

• A principle constitutes an established relationship between factors.
• Thorndike’s Principle asserts that a behavior is more likely to increase in frequency if followed by a satisfying state.
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that responses to a situation followed by satisfaction get strengthened, while those followed by discomfort get weakened.

Theory Definition

• A theory constitutes an integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions.
• People learn that to which pay attention.
• A reward increases learning when it makes people pay attention.
• Principles encompass two interacted things, whereas theory might combine multiple principles.

Pros and Cons of Theory

• Pros: Provides an interpretative framework for understanding observations and helps organize experiences, generating new research via assumptions or testable hypotheses.
• Cons: No single theory explains everything; theories can bias knowledge construction and dissemination processes.

Practice in Theory

• Understanding theories of learning can help one understand their own learning and contributing factors, provide strategies to enhance learning quality and motivation
• Guide understanding of how learners learn and how educators can become more effective in teaching practice, and contribute to one's personal philosophy of learning and teaching.
• Theory seems to apply to things with common features, rather than benefiting individuals.

Three Key Learning Outcomes

• Understanding key learning theories and defining terms/principles.
• Describing how cognitive, behavioral, social, and situational factors enhance or hinder learning.
• One learns best by identifying ways to improve their own learning.

What is Learning?

• It is any relatively permanent change in an organism that results from experience.

Learning as Change

Brain Development

• MacLean’s Triune Brain theorizes "Three-Brains-in-One”
• The first brain: The Reptilian Brain (the R-Complex) connects the Hindbrain and reptilian complex.
• The second brain: The Paleo-Mammalian Brain connects the midbrain and limbic system
• The third brain: The Neo-Mammalian Brain connects the forebrain and neocortex.

Reptilian Brain (First Brain)

• Controls basic survival functions like breathing, heartbeat, and fight-or-flight responses, accounting for physical instincts.

Paleo-Mammalian Brain (Second Brain)

• Is responsible for emotions, memory, and social bonding.

Neo-Mammalian Brain (Third Brain)

• Allows complex thinking, self-awareness, and advanced communication
• Is responsible for high function of cognition, which only exists in the human brain and distinguishes humans from other mammals.

The First Brain

• The oldest part of the brain is located at the center
• It includes basic needs, instincts, drives, and avoidances like body temperature, hunger, and fight-flight responses.

The Second Brain

• Located around the R-Complex (the center of the brain).
• It houses feelings and also memory, recall, and emotional/hormonal control.

The Third Brain

• Wrapped around the Second Brain
• Consists of the newest parts of the brain: Frontal, Temporal, Parietal, and Occipital Lobes
• Home of language, problem-solving, complex social skills and other higher order cognitive processes.

Neurons

• The average human brain has over 100 billion neurons, each connected to 10,000+ other cells, equaling approximately 1,000 trillion connections.
• Anatomical Features: The cell body (soma), contains the nucleus
• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals carry messages between neurons.
• Dendrites: Branchlike structures receive messages.
• Axon: Arm-like structure transmits information.

Synapse

• It is the gap between two neurons that allows transmission of messages.

Neurotransmitters

• Inhibitory (Calming) Neurotransmitters include GABA and serotonin, serving to "cool" the CNS.
• Excitatory (Stimulating) Neurotransmitters include dopamine and norepinephrine, serving to “heat up” the CNS.
• Lacking carbs can reduce serotonin production, leading to less calmness and more anxiety.

Factors Affecting Brain Development

• Genes and Biology (Nature): Genes as discrete units of inheritance.
• Environment and Experience (Nurture): Brains of animals in enriched conditions were heavier, had more connections, and were more active.
• Humans need a stimulating environment to achieve optimal learning and development.

Nurture

• Plasticity is the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.
• Experience-expectant fine-tunes powers to adapt to environmental conditions and is available from conception.
• Experience-dependent entails the emergence of skills unique to particular cultures and social groups
• Nutrition is especially critical during the 10-18th weeks of fetal development
• Malnutrition can impair neurotransmitter flow.
• Teratogens are foreign substances causing abnormalities in developing fetuses, including lead, alcohol, and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).

Synaptogenesis

• Skills that aid in developing elaborate and lasting neural connections: 1. Receive significant amounts of time, attention, and practice 2. Have important emotional, personal, and survival connections
• Synaptic Pruning involves the weakening or degeneration of synaptic connections, or using it or losing it.

Critical or Sensitive Periods

• Critical Period: A specific window of opportunity in which certain experiences are necessary for brain and cognitive development
• Sensitive or Optimal Period: A window when the brain is particularly sensitive to environmental influences.

Myelin

• Myelin: Fatty substance that speeds up neural transmissions
• Myelin Development (age-related myelination): Hand-eye coordination is not complete until four years of age
• Focusing attention not complete until 10 years of age
• Thinking and reasoning not complete until late adolescence/early adulthood
• Demyelination can cause neurodegenerative autoimmune such as Multiple Sclerosis and Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, and others such as Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Alcohol and pollution

• Both have a negative impact on brain development

The correlation with words from parents in childhood

• The more words addressed to the child from parents, the higher social class children acquire in the future.