Horace, Maecenas, and Augustan Rome

• The topic is the relationship between poetry and politics in Augustan Rome
• The focus is on the patronage of Maecenas and the satires of Horace

Key Figures

• Maecenas (C. Cilnius Maecenas) was a wealthy individual, possibly of Etruscan royal descent
• Maecenas benefitted from proscriptions
• He never entered the Senate or took office, but governed Rome during Augustus' absences
• Maecenas was a crucial patron of the arts, embodying the "ideal patron"
• His lifestyle was known for its sloppiness and indulgence
• Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus) (65 BCE - 8 ВСЕ) was a prominent Latin lyric poet, considered foremost in this genre, just as Vergil was in epic
• Horace was born in Venusia
• Horace was a friend of Maecenas and a key figure in Augustan literary circles.

Key Dates

• 65 BCE: Horace's birth
• 36/5 BCE - 23 BCE: Publication of Horace's Odes 1-35
• 35 BCE: Publication of Horace's Satires 17
• 30 BCE: Publication of Horace's Epodes and Satires 27
• 8 BCE: Maecenas' death, possibly Horace's as well

Vocabulary

• Amicitia (Friendship) was a significant social and political bond in Roman society, exemplified by the relationship between Maecenas and Horace
• Their connection was based on artistic and ethical grounds despite Horace's humble origins
• Sermones/Saturae ("Conversations/Satires") were a uniquely Roman genre, originating with C. Lucilius (180-102/1 BCE)
• They were written in dactylic hexameter (the same meter as epic)
• Satires mocked everyday life and elite culture
• Horace's Satires were published in two books
• A Patron is an individual who provides financial or other support to artists, writers, or other figures
• Maecenas was the quintessential Augustan patron

Importance to the Age of Augustus

• Maecenas played a vital role in fostering cultural production during Augustus' reign
• As a close advisor to Augustus, he facilitated the creation of literature that, while not overtly political, contributed to the cultural vitality of the era
• Horace's Satires, being a uniquely Roman genre, reflected and commented on Augustan society, its values, and its concerns, such as the pursuit of wealth and the ideal of "mediocritas" ("the average")
• The relationship between Maecenas and Horace highlights the intricate connection between power, patronage, and artistic expression in this period

Horace's Odes 1

• Topic: The lyric poetry of Horace and its engagement with ancient Greek models in the context of Augustan Rome.

Key Figures

• Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus): His Odes are a key focus
• Archaic Greek Lyric Poets: Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar, Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides
• Horace drew inspiration from these poets, adapting their styles and meters

Key Dates

• C. 7th BCE: Active period of Alcman
• 630 BCE: Birth of Sappho
• 620s BCE: Birth of Alcaeus
• 54 BCE: Death of Catullus, a Roman poet who also engaged with Greek lyric
• 438 BCE: Death of Pindar
• 3rd century BCE: Life of Callimachus of Cyrene, influential in Hellenistic poetry and relevant to Roman adaptations
• 23 BCE: Publication of Horace's Odes 1-31

Vocabulary

• Bard (vates, pl. vates) is a poet, often seen as having a prophetic or socially significant role
• This term was used by Augustan poets, including Horace and Ovid, to elevate their status
• Recusatio ("refusal") is a literary device where a poet refuses to write on a grand or public theme, often in favor of more personal or modest subjects
• Horace uses recusatio in Odes 1.6, declining to write an epic for Agrippa
• Lyric Poetry was originally intended to be sung, characterized by personal expression and often dealing with themes like love, wine, and the passage of time
• Horace adapted Greek lyric meters and styles into Latin
• Allusion is a reference to another literary work, historical event, or cultural figure
• Horace's Odes are rich in allusions to Greek lyric poets like Alcaeus (e.g., Nunc est bibendum) and Pindar
• Aurea mediocritas (“the golden mean") is a key theme in Horace's work, advocating for a balanced and moderate way of life, avoiding extremes
• Tempus fugit is a Latin phrase meaning "time flies," a common theme in lyric poetry, including Horace's, emphasizing the fleeting nature of life and the importance of seizing the day (carpe diem)

Importance to the Age of Augustus

• Horace's Odes represent a sophisticated engagement with Greek literary tradition within the context of Augustan Rome
• By adapting and reinterpreting Archaic Greek lyric forms, Horace contributed to the development of a distinctly Roman poetic voice
• The themes explored in the Odes, such as the "golden mean," the fleeting nature of time, and modest pleasures resonate with the Augustan emphasis on order, stability, and a return to traditional values
• The recusatio also subtly defines the poet's role in relation to political power, suggesting a balance between public and private life
• Horace's position as a vates elevated the status of poetry in the Augustan cultural landscape.

Latin Love Elegy

• Topic: The emergence and characteristics of Latin Love Elegy during the Age of Augustus, focusing on Tibullus, Propertius, and Sulpicia

Key Figures

• Albius Tibullus (d. 19 BCE) was an elegiac poet, possibly the "Albius" mentioned in Horace's Odes
• His patron was M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus and his beloved was Delia
• Sextus Propertius (Maybe: 55 - 15 BCE) was an elegiac poet from Umbria
• He dedicated Books 2 and 3 of his elegies to Maecenas and his beloved was Cynthia
• Sulpicia was a female poet, possibly Messalla's niece, whose poems survive as an addition to Tibullus' literary corpus
• She is both a woman lover and the beloved in her poems
• Callimachus of Cyrene (3rd century BCE) was a Hellenistic poet whose poetic principles, particularly the emphasis on shorter, refined forms and the "slender Muse", influenced the Roman elegists

Key Dates

• d. 19 BCE: Death of Albius Tibullus
• Maybe 55-15 BCE: Approximate lifespan of Sextus Propertius

Vocabulary

• "The slavery of love” (servitium amoris) is a central trope in love elegy where the poet-lover is presented as enslaved to his passion for the puella
• This often involves a reversal of traditional gender roles
• "The war of love” (militia amoris) is another key trope depicting love as a form of military service for the elegist
• This contrasts with traditional Roman military and civic values
• Meretrix ("courtesan/sex-worker") is when The beloved in elegy is often a meretrix, an elite sex worker, independent from a leno (pimp), similar to the Greek hetaira
• Puella docta (“learned girl?”) is when The elegiac "girl" (puella) is often portrayed as intelligent and sophisticated, contributing to the power dynamics in the relationship
• Nequitia ("uselessness") is a self-ascribed trait of the elegiac lover, rejecting public, civic values like marriage, duty, and monogamy in favor of love affairs and retreat
• Priamel is a rhetorical device used at the beginning of poems, listing various options before the speaker states their preference, as seen in Tibullus and Horace

Importance to the Age of Augustus

• Latin Love Elegy offers a counterpoint to the dominant Augustan ideology that emphasized traditional Roman values, marriage, family, and public service
• The elegists' embrace of nequitia, their portrayal of the poet as subservient to the puella, and their focus on private love affairs challenge the regime's moral agenda
• While Propertius had some connection to Maecenas, the genre as a whole often avoids direct engagement with Augustus and his achievements (e.g., Tibullus never mentions him)
• This deliberate detachment and focus on personal, often transgressive, love experiences provide a fascinating perspective on the complexities and contradictions within Augustan society
• The genre's engagement with Hellenistic poetic principles, as seen in Callimachus' influence, also highlights the ongoing dialogue between Roman and Greek literary traditions in this period.

Monumental Prose

• Topic: The emergence of monumental prose works during the Augustan Age, focusing on the histories of Livy and the architectural treatise of Vitruvius

Key Figures

• Titus Livius (Livy) (59 BCE - 17 CE) was a historian born in Patavium (modern Padua)
• His monumental work was Ab Urbe Condita ("From the Founding of the City"), originally 142 books, of which 35 survive
• Vitruvius (M. (?) Vitruvius Pollio (?) active late 1st century BCE) was an architect and military engineer who served with Caesar in Gaul.
• He is the author of the influential Ten Books on Architecture

Key Dates

• 59 BCE: Birth of Livy
• Ends 9 BCE: The historical narrative of Livy's surviving books of Ab Urbe Condita
• 121-142 published after Augustus' death: Later books of Livy's history

Vocabulary

• Ab Urbe Condita (“From the Founding of the City") is the title of Livy's comprehensive history of Rome
• Pentad is a group of five books (in the context of Livy's work)
• Decade is a group of ten books (in the context of Livy's work)
• Auctoritas (authority, credibility) is a key concept in Roman society, referring to influence and prestige
• Livy had to negotiate the auctoritas of figures like Augustus when writing history
• Testes (witnesses) are those who provide firsthand accounts
• Livy relies on various auctores and testes in his historical narrative
• Symmetria (Mathematical harmony) is one of Vitruvius' three abstract principles of architecture
• Eurhythmia (Visual harmony) is another of Vitruvius' abstract principles, referring to pleasing proportions
• Decor (Appropriateness) is the third of Vitruvius' abstract principles, emphasizing that a building should be suitable for its purpose and context

Importance to the Age of Augustus

• Both Livy's history and Vitruvius' architectural treatise reflect the Augustan desire for order, stability, and a sense of Rome's historical significance and grandeur
• Livy's Ab Urbe Condita provided a narrative of Rome's rise from its mythical origins to its present power, reinforcing Augustan claims of restoring Rome's past glory and providing a sense of national identity
• His inclusion of stories illustrating Roman virtues and the origins of social institutions aligns with Augustus' moral and social reforms
• Vitruvius' Ten Books on Architecture, dedicated to Augustus, aimed to establish principles for creating monumental and functional buildings, contributing to the physical transformation of Rome under Augustus and embodying the era's ambition for lasting achievements
• Vitruvius' emphasis on the architect's broad knowledge and understanding of human well-being reflects the Augustan ideal of a well-ordered and civilized society

Augustan Geography

• Topic: The Augustan understanding and representation of geography, particularly in relation to the conquest of Egypt and the expansion of the Roman world

Key Figures

• Cornelius Gallus (c. 70-26 BCE) was an elegist and eques (knight) who was appointed as the first prefect of Egypt after its conquest
• He was a friend of Vergil and Varius Rufus
• Cleopatra VII (69-30 BCE) was the last pharaoh of Egypt, whose defeat and suicide marked the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Roman annexation of Egypt
• Queen Amanirenas (Kandake/Candace) (late 1st century BCE) was the queen of the Kushite Kingdom of Meroë in Nubia who invaded Egypt in 25 BCE
• Marcus Agrippa (64/63 – 12 BCE) was Augustus' close associate and general, who undertook a major geographical survey of the Roman world

Key Dates

• 30 BCE: Suicide of Cleopatra and the Roman conquest of Egypt
• 25 BCE: Invasion of Egypt by Queen Amanirenas of Meroë
• 10 BCE: Relocation of Egyptian obelisks to Rome by Augustus
• 13th century map (after 4th century original?): Peutinger Map, possibly reflecting Agrippa's survey

Vocabulary

• Obelisks are tall, four-sided, tapering monuments originally from ancient Egypt
• Augustus brought several to Rome as symbols of Roman power and victory over Egypt
• Peutinger Map is a 13th-century map believed to be a copy of a 4th-century Roman map (possibly based on Agrippa's survey) showing the road network and important settlements of the Roman Empire. It depicts "hodological space," focusing on travel routes rather than accurate geographical proportions
• Egyptomania is a fascination with ancient Egypt
• The Roman conquest of Egypt fueled this interest in Augustan Rome, leading to the incorporation of Egyptian styles in art and architecture, the importation of obelisks, and even the representation of Augustus in pharaonic guise

Importance to the Age of Augustus

• The Augustan understanding of geography was intimately linked to the expansion and consolidation of Roman power
• The conquest of Egypt was a major achievement for Augustus, and the appropriation of Egyptian symbols like obelisks served to visually represent Rome's dominance and incorporate the conquered territory into the Roman worldview
• The geographical survey undertaken by Agrippa and potentially reflected in the Peutinger Map demonstrates the Augustan interest in mapping and organizing the vast Roman Empire, facilitating administration, trade, and military movement
• The representation of Augustus as a pharaoh in Egypt highlights the regime's adaptability and its willingness to adopt local imagery to solidify its rule in newly conquered territories
• The "world in the world city" concept underscores how Rome, under Augustus, sought to represent its global power through its urban landscape, incorporating elements from different parts of the empire

Augustan Rome and Greece

• Topic: The relationship between Augustan Rome and Greece, highlighting the diversity of Greece and Roman attitudes towards its classical past and contemporary cities.

Key Figures

• Augustus' interactions with various Greek cities, including Athens and Sparta, are discussed
• Sulla (Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix) (c. 138 – 78 ВСЕ) was a Roman general and statesman who sacked Athens in 86 BCE
• Atticus (Titus Pomponius Atticus) (110 – 32 BCE) was a wealthy Roman eques with close ties to Athens, praised for his generosity towards the city
• Marcus Agrippa was Augustus' associate who contributed to building projects in Athens, including the Odeon

Key Dates

• 86 BCE: Sulla captures and sacks Athens
• 29 BCE: Foundation of Nikopolis by Augustus near the site of the Battle of Actium
• 27 BCE: Establishment of the Actian Games in Nikopolis
• 22/1 BCE: Augustus visits Greece

Vocabulary

• Athens was a historically significant Greek city, admired by Romans for its classical past but also subjected to Roman power
• Corinth was a Greek city that was destroyed and then rebuilt by Julius Caesar, becoming a Roman colony populated by freedmen
• The discovery of "Necrocorinthia" (terra-cotta reliefs and bronzeware from graves) highlights Roman interest in Greek artifacts
• Nikopolis was a "Victory City" founded by Augustus in Epirus near the site of the Battle of Actium
• It was a synoecism (combination of settlements) and hosted the Actian Games
• Imperial Cult was the worship of the Roman emperor and the imperial family
• Temples dedicated to Roma and Augustus were erected in Greek cities like Athens
• Synoecism is the amalgamation of several small settlements into a single larger urban center, as seen in the founding of Nikopolis

Importance to the Age of Augustus

• Augustan Rome had a complex relationship with Greece
• Greece was revered as the cradle of Western civilization, and Romans admired its classical past
• Many Romans, like Atticus, had close cultural ties to Greek cities
• Greece was firmly under Roman control with Augustus' actions, such as favoring Sparta while punishing Athens, demonstrate Roman power dynamics
• The rebuilding of Corinth as a Roman colony and the founding of Nikopolis as a symbol of Augustan victory highlight the Roman reshaping of the Greek landscape
• The establishment of the Imperial Cult in Greece served to promote Roman authority and integrate Greek cities into the imperial system
• Greece was becoming a "museum" for cultivated Romans, appreciated for its history while being subject to Roman rule
• The petitions from Greek cities to Rome further illustrate their dependence on Roman power for resolving disputes and other matters

Vergil's Aeneid

• Topic: An introduction to Vergil's Aeneid, focusing on its epic conventions, the character of Aeneas, and the poem's Augustan context

Key Figures

• Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro) (70 – 19 BCE) was the author of the Aeneid, considered Rome's foremost epic poet
• Aeneas was a Trojan prince, son of Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite
• He is the hero of the Aeneid, destined to found Rome
• In Homer's Iliad, he is a lesser warrior often rescued by his mother
• Dido was the queen of Carthage who falls in love with Aeneas in the Aeneid. Her story poses a threat to Aeneas' Roman destiny
• Jupiter (Zeus) was the king of the gods in Roman mythology, who prophesies Rome's glorious future through Aeneas' lineage.

Key Dates

• 70 – 19 BCE: Lifespan of Vergil
• 47-46 BCE: Denarius of Julius Caesar depicting Aeneas carrying Anchises and the Palladium

Vocabulary

• Epic is a long narrative poem about a heroic, idealized past, featuring greater-than-human figures performing impossible deeds, written in dactylic hexameter
• Conventions include invocation to the Muses, beginning in medias res (in the middle of the action), and using "epic machinery" (divine intervention)
• In medias res is a Latin phrase meaning "in the midst of things," referring to the epic convention of starting the narrative in the middle of the story
• Epic machinery is The involvement of gods and supernatural forces in the events of an epic poem
• Prophecy is a prediction of future events, crucial in epic to establish the hero's destiny and the significance of their actions. Jupiter's prophecy in the Aeneid foretells Rome's unending rule
• Rule without end (imperium sine fine) is the prophecy given by Jupiter in the Aeneid, promising that Rome's empire will have no limits in time or space. This was a key ideological concept during the Augustan Age, emphasizing Rome's eternal destiny.

Importance to the Age of Augustus

• Vergil's Aeneid is arguably the most important literary work of the Augustan Age
• Commissioned, the epic narrates the mythical origins of Rome through the journey of the Trojan hero Aeneas, linking Rome's foundation to the prestigious past of Troy and the will of the gods
• The prophecy of Jupiter directly connects Aeneas' lineage to Julius Caesar and the Julian family, thereby legitimizing Augustus' rule and presenting it as the fulfillment of divine destiny
• The poem's themes of piety, duty, and the founding of a great empire resonated with Augustus' efforts to restore Roman values and establish a new era of peace and prosperity
• The character of Aeneas, portrayed as a hero dedicated to his mission despite personal suffering, served as a model of Roman virtue and leadership
• By crafting a national epic that traced Rome's origins to a heroic past and prophesied its eternal greatness, Vergil provided crucial ideological support for the Augustan regime

The Aeneid, Day 2

• Key Concepts:
• Original inhabitants of Italy: The Aeneid engages with the pre-Roman history of Italy.
• Anachronistic imagination: Vergil projects Augustan ideals and context into the mythical past.
• Anger: A significant theme explored through characters like Juno and Turnus.
• Shield of Aeneas: A divinely crafted shield depicting future Roman history, commissioned by Venus from Vulcan. This symbolizes the Augustan ideology of a divinely ordained Roman destiny.
• Council of the gods (concilium deorum): A traditional epic trope involving the intervention of gods in human affairs, reflecting divine support for Aeneas' mission.
• Translation Theories: Discussions on the challenges and approaches to translating ancient texts like the Aeneid, including fidelity criticism and the concepts of foreignizing vs. domesticizing. These theories highlight how contemporary interpretations of the Aeneid are shaped.
• Fidelity criticism: Focuses on how "close" a translation is to the original source language.
• Foreignizing: A translation strategy that aims to retain elements of the source language and culture in the target language.
• Domesticizing: A translation strategy that adapts the source text to fit the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language.
• Affordances of translation: What a translation can do, the new possibilities it creates.
• Prophecy: Plays a crucial role in the Aeneid, foretelling the future of Rome and legitimizing its rise. Examples include the omens in the house of Latinus and the voice in the sacred grove.
• Fury (Allecto): A divine agent of chaos, sent by Juno to incite conflict and opposition to Aeneas.
• Divine machinery: The involvement of gods and their competing agendas in the epic narrative. This reinforces the idea of a world shaped by both human and divine forces.
• Epic battle narration: Conventions and elements used to describe warfare in epic poetry, including duels, supplication, spoils, routs, and aristeia.
• Aristeia: A moment of "greatness" or heroic achievement for an individual warrior in battle.
• Contemptor deum: "Despiser of the gods," a characterization of Mezentius highlighting his impiety.
• Killing of a pet: An event that can trigger significant conflict, as seen with Ascanius shooting Sylvia's stag, leading to war. This illustrates how seemingly minor actions can have major consequences in the epic world.
• Key Dates:
• Late 2nd century CE: Approximate date for the Blind Homer statue. While not directly related to the Age of Augustus, it represents a later reception of epic tradition.
• 20 BCE: Approximate date of the Intaglio gem with the flight of Aeneas from Troy. This shows early Roman visual engagement with the Aeneid narrative during Augustus' reign.
• 1618-19: Date of Bernini's sculpture, Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius Fleeing Troy. This represents a later artistic interpretation of the Aeneid.
• 1677: Date of Pietro Santo Bartoli's illustrations, The Omens in the House of Latinus. Another example of later artistic engagement with the epic.
• 1638: Date of Peter Paul Rubens' painting, Consequences of War. A later artistic reflection on the theme of war, potentially inspired by epic narratives.
• ca. 1716-18: Approximate date of Sebastiano Conca's sketch, Venus in the forge of Vulcan. A later depiction of a key scene from the Aeneid.
• 1611: Date of Adriaan de Vries' sculpture, Vulcan's Forge. Another later artistic representation of the shield's creation.
• 1518-19: Date of Raffaelo Sanzio's Council of the gods fresco in the Lodge of Psyche. A Renaissance artistic take on the epic divine council.
• 1865: Date of Louis Janmot's painting, The Torture of Mezentius. A 19th-century artistic interpretation of a scene from the Aeneid.
• Key Figures:
• Aeneas: The Trojan hero destined to found Rome. His journey and struggles are central to the Aeneid and serve as a mythical prefiguration of Augustus' rise.
• Anchises: Aeneas' father, whose death is commemorated in Sicily (Book 5) and whom Aeneas visits in the underworld (Book 6). He represents the ancestral connection and the importance of piety.
• Ascanius (Iulus): Aeneas' son, a key figure in the lineage leading to the Julian clan, which Augustus belonged to. His actions, like shooting Sylvia's stag, can have significant consequences.
• Dido: Queen of Carthage, who falls in love with Aeneas (Book 4). Her tragic story explores themes of love, sorrow, and the conflict between personal desires and destiny.
• King Latinus: The king of Latium, who initially welcomes Aeneas and is willing to offer him his daughter Lavinia in marriage.
• Amata: Wife of King Latinus, who opposes the marriage of Lavinia to Aeneas, influenced by Juno and Allecto.
• Lavinia: Daughter of King Latinus, destined to marry Aeneas according to prophecy.
• Juno: A major antagonist in the Aeneid, driven by her anger and resentment towards the Trojans. Her opposition highlights the challenges Aeneas must overcome.
• Allecto: One of the Furies, sent by Juno to stir up conflict in Italy.
• Turnus: A Rutulian prince, Lavinia's suitor, and Aeneas' primary opponent in Italy. He is inflamed by Allecto and represents the forces resisting the establishment of the Trojan/Roman future.
• Venus: Aeneas' mother and a supporter of the Trojans. She intervenes on his behalf, for example, by asking Vulcan to forge his shield.
• Vulcan (Hephaistos): The god of the forge, husband of Venus, who creates the magnificent shield for Aeneas.
• Jupiter: The king of the gods, who guides fate and offers solace to Hercules upon the death of Pallas.
• Pallas: A young Arcadian ally of Aeneas, killed by Turnus. His death evokes pathos and fuels Aeneas' rage.
• Evander: Pallas' father and king of the Arcadians, who entrusts his son to Aeneas.
• Mezentius: A tyrannical former king of the Tuscans, an ally of Turnus, and a contemptor deum. His brutal methods of torture are described.
• Lausus: Mezentius' devoted son, killed by Aeneas. Aeneas feels pity for him, recognizing his filial piety.
• Importance to the Age of Augustus:
• The Aeneid provided a foundational myth for Rome and, by extension, for the reign of Augustus. It linked Augustus' lineage to the legendary figures of Troy, portraying the establishment of Rome as a divinely ordained destiny. The epic also explored themes of leadership, piety, and the costs of establishing Roman power, all relevant to understanding Augustan ideology and the justification of his rule. The Shield of Aeneas, depicting future Roman triumphs, directly foreshadows the greatness of Rome culminating in Augustus' era.

The Aeneid, Day 3

• Key Concepts:
• Camilla: A Volscian warrior woman who fights on the side of Turnus. Her character engages with the epic tradition of warrior women and raises questions about gender dynamics in epic narrative.
• Greco-Roman epic: The Aeneid draws upon and alludes to earlier Greek epics like Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, placing itself within this literary tradition.
• End of the Trojans: While the Aeneid narrates the journey leading to the founding of Rome by Trojans, it also marks the end of their original identity as they integrate into Italy.
• Death of Turnus: The final confrontation between Aeneas and Turnus, which concludes the Aeneid and symbolizes the triumph of the Roman destiny.
• Allusion: A literary device where a text references another text, often to enrich meaning or create intertextual connections. Vergil's Aeneid is replete with allusions to Homer.
• Warrior women in epic: The tradition of female combatants in epic literature, exemplified by figures like Penthesilea and Camilla.
• Vergil and the Epic Cycle: The Aeneid's relationship to the broader body of Greek epic poems that followed Homer.
• Aestheticization of women's death: The tendency in some epic narratives to portray the deaths of female characters in a way that is visually or emotionally evocative, sometimes raising ethical questions.
• Sacrificing women: The theme of female characters who suffer or die, often symbolically, in epic narratives. Examples in the Aeneid include Creusa, Dido, Camilla, and Amata.
• Original civil war?: The conflict in the Aeneid between Aeneas and Turnus can be interpreted as a foundational civil war, prefiguring later Roman conflicts.
• Taming of Juno: In the later books of the Aeneid, Juno's opposition to the Trojans is eventually subdued, symbolizing the ultimate acceptance of Rome's destiny by the divine powers.
• Pursuit of Hector: Allusions to the Iliad, particularly the pursuit of Hector by Achilles, are evident in the Aeneid, such as the final chase between Aeneas and Turnus.
• Augustan? Anti-Augustan?: Scholarly debate regarding whether the Aeneid primarily supports or critiques Augustan ideology, considering themes of destructive violence and the portrayal of the proto-Roman hero.
• Narrative drive: The force that propels the story forward in an epic.
• Prophecy: Reinforces the sense of inevitability, linking the events of the Aeneid to the future greatness of Rome and the rise of Augustus.
• Generic "codes” of epic: The established conventions and features of the epic genre that Vergil both utilizes and manipulates.
• Gendered dynamics of epic narrative and epic description: How gender roles and representations shape the story and its descriptions, and how these might reinforce each other.
• Key Dates:
• 400-600 CE: Approximate date of the Sasanian Empire dish depicting King Hormizd II or III hunting lions. This provides a comparative example of heroic representation from a different cultural context.
• 1615: Approximate date of Sebastiaen Vrancx's painting, Aeneas and Achates Outside the Temple of Juno. A later artistic depiction of a scene from the Aeneid.
• 540-530 BCE: Approximate date of the Exekias amphora depicting Achilles killing Penthesilea. An example of the warrior woman trope in earlier Greek art.
• 1937: Date of Raoul Ubac's photograph, Penthésilée IV. A modern artistic engagement with the figure of Penthesilea.
• 1581: Publication year of Torquato Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata, which features a character inspired by Camilla.
• ca. 1586-1600: Approximate date of Domenico Tintoretto's painting, Tancredi Baptizes Clorinda, an illustration from Tasso's work.
• 1700: Date of Giacomo del Po's painting, The Fight between Aeneas and King Turnus. A later artistic representation of the epic's climax.
• 1622-24: Date of Rubens' (copied by Renoir) painting, Council of the Gods. A later artistic interpretation of the divine council.
• 2nd century: Date of the marble sarcophagus depicting the return of Hector's body to Troy. An example of how earlier epic narratives were visualized in Roman art.
• Key Figures:
• Camilla:
• Aeneas:
• Turnus:
• Achilles: The central hero of Homer's Iliad, whose actions are often alluded to in the Aeneid.
• Penthesilea: Queen of the Amazons, killed by Achilles in the Trojan War, a prominent example of a warrior woman in epic.
• Hector: A Trojan prince in the Iliad, his pursuit and death by Achilles are echoed in the Aeneid.
• Clorinda: A Saracen warrior woman in Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata, inspired by Camilla.
• Tancredi: A Christian knight in Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata.
• Juno:
• Importance to the Age of Augustus:
• The Aeneid's engagement with the epic tradition provided a sense of continuity and cultural legitimacy for Augustan Rome, linking it to the esteemed world of ancient Greece. The themes of war, destiny, and the establishment of order from chaos resonated with the Augustan narrative of restoring peace and founding a new golden age after a period of civil strife. The ambiguous ending and the debate over whether the epic is pro- or anti-Augustan highlight the complexities of interpreting Vergil's work in relation to the political climate of the time.

Ovid's Metamorphoses

• Key Concepts:
• Aetiology/Origin Story: A narrative that explains the cause or origin of a custom, name, natural phenomenon, etc. Ovid's Metamorphoses is full of such stories.
• Apotheosis (deification): The process by which a mortal becomes a god. The Metamorphoses ends with the apotheosis of Augustus.
• Mythological epic and Roman history: Ovid intertwines Greek myths with Roman history, culminating in the Augustan present.
• Ancient vegetarian: The lecture mentions the speech of Pythagoras, which includes arguments for vegetarianism.
• Structure and design of Metamorphoses: A fifteen-book poem beginning with the creation of the world and ending with the deification of Augustus, unified by the theme of transformation.
• Themes of Metamorphoses: Origins, transformations, love, violence, sexual assault, interactions between gods and mortals, mortals becoming gods, the power of storytelling, and stories set within stories.
• Mutability: The state of being subject to change. Pythagoras' speech emphasizes the universal nature of change.
• Vates: Latin for "bard" or "poet–prophet." Augustan poets used this term to elevate their social and religious standing.
• Golden Age: A mythical past era of peace, harmony, and abundance, often depicted as a time before human corruption and violence, as described in Pythagoras' speech.
• Key Dates:
• Late 2nd century CE: Approximate date for the Blind Homer statue
• ca. 1531-1535: Approximate date of Giovanni Bernardi's rock crystal carving, after Michelangelo, "The Fall of Phaethon.' A Renaissance artistic depiction of a mythological transformation.
• 1948: Date of Leo Kenney's painting, Metamorphosis. A modern artistic interpretation of the poem's central theme.
• 1862: Date of Eugène Delacroix's painting, Ovid Among the Scythians. A Romantic depiction of Ovid in exile, reflecting on his enduring poetic legacy.
• ca. 1610-1647: Approximate dates for Jerôme David's (attributed) drawing after Claude Vignon, Pythagoras. A visual representation of the philosopher whose speech is featured in the Metamorphoses.
• ca. 1625: Approximate date of Jan Brueghel the Younger and Circle of Rubens' painting, "The Golden Age. A Baroque artistic depiction of the mythical era described by Pythagoras.
• Key Figures:
• Ovid: The author of the Metamorphoses, a prominent poet of the Augustan Age.
• Augustus: The Roman emperor whose apotheosis concludes the Metamorphoses, aligning his reign with divine will and the culmination of Roman history.
• Jove (Jupiter): The king of the gods, who plays a significant role in many of the myths recounted in the *Met