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Questions and Answers
Which mechanism directly decreases the amount of protein available after translation?
Which mechanism directly decreases the amount of protein available after translation?
A cell exposed to a sudden increase in temperature would likely respond by increasing the production of which kind of protein?
A cell exposed to a sudden increase in temperature would likely respond by increasing the production of which kind of protein?
Which of the following adjustments would increase the fluidity of a cell membrane?
Which of the following adjustments would increase the fluidity of a cell membrane?
Which of these processes is an example of post-translational modification?
Which of these processes is an example of post-translational modification?
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How does an increase in blood glucose levels lead to increased insulin production?
How does an increase in blood glucose levels lead to increased insulin production?
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What is the primary role of the sodium/potassium pump in maintaining an ion gradient across a cell membrane?
What is the primary role of the sodium/potassium pump in maintaining an ion gradient across a cell membrane?
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Which of the following best describes the initial step of signal transduction?
Which of the following best describes the initial step of signal transduction?
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Which macromolecule is NOT primarily used as a fuel during exercise?
Which macromolecule is NOT primarily used as a fuel during exercise?
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How do enzymes act as catalysts in cellular chemical reactions?
How do enzymes act as catalysts in cellular chemical reactions?
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What is a primary difference between apoptosis and necrosis?
What is a primary difference between apoptosis and necrosis?
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Which of the following is an example of a reactive oxygen species (ROS)?
Which of the following is an example of a reactive oxygen species (ROS)?
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How does the body's antioxidant defense mechanism work to reduce oxidative stress?
How does the body's antioxidant defense mechanism work to reduce oxidative stress?
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If a 30-year-old client has a heart rate of 160 bpm during exercise, what is their estimated maximum heart rate (HRmax) using the formula provided?
If a 30-year-old client has a heart rate of 160 bpm during exercise, what is their estimated maximum heart rate (HRmax) using the formula provided?
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During prolonged moderate-intensity exercise, what is the primary source of ATP production?
During prolonged moderate-intensity exercise, what is the primary source of ATP production?
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What is the primary role of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in the endocrine system?
What is the primary role of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in the endocrine system?
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Study Notes
Homeostasis, Steady State, and Circadian Rhythm
- Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.
- Steady state is a dynamic equilibrium where the body maintains a relatively constant internal environment despite changes in the external environment.
- Circadian rhythm is the natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and other biological processes over a 24-hour period.
Biological Control Systems
- Thermoregulation, blood pressure control, and blood glucose maintenance are examples of biological control systems in the human body.
- Biological control systems consist of a receptor, control center, and effector.
Feedback Loops
- Negative feedback loops maintain homeostasis by reversing a change in a regulated variable.
- Feed-forward mechanisms anticipate a change in a regulated variable and initiate a response before major deviation occurs.
- Positive feedback loops amplify a change in a regulated variable.
Hormesis and Exercise
- Hormesis is a phenomenon where low-dose exposure to a stressor can have beneficial effects.
- Exercise is an example of hormesis, where low to moderate levels of stress trigger adaptation and improvement in health and function.
Cell Signaling Mechanisms
- Five cell signaling mechanisms exist, although the lecture did not list them.
Gene Expression Regulation
Transcription
- Increase: Transcription factors that enhance, histone acetylation, increased mRNA, increased ribosomal number, presence of HSPs to assist with protein folding, transport of the protein to its target location.
- Decrease: Transcription factors that repress, DNA methylation, increased microRNAs, inability to transport mRNA from the nucleus, insufficient amino acids to build a protein, ubiquitin tagging, lack of protein transport to its target location.
Translation
- Increase: Increased rRNA activity, increased ribosomal numbers, increased tRNA availability.
- Decrease: Lack of genetic material, insufficiency of amino acids.
Post-Translational Modification
- Increase: Addition of chemical groups, protein cleavage, formation of complex structures.
- Decrease: Removal of regulatory groups, or inability to undergo important steps.
Cellular Adaptation
- The body adapts to homeostatic challenges through regulated gene expression.
- For example, beta cells increase insulin production when exposed to high glucose levels.
Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs)
- HSPs protect cells from damage by assisting in the proper folding of proteins.
Cell Membranes and Receptors
- Cell membranes are composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
- Membrane fluidity is increased when needed by altering the lipid composition.
- Cell junctions include tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
Membrane Transport
- Passive transport (diffusion and osmosis) does not require energy.
- Active transport requires energy, like the sodium-potassium pump, to maintain ion gradients.
Signal Transduction
- Receiving, converting (transducing), and reacting to external signals are all part of signal transduction.
- Cellular responses can include activation of enzymes or gene expression.
ATP Production and Metabolic Pathways
- Enzymes catalyze cellular chemical reactions.
- Macromolecules used as fuels during exercise include carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
- ATP is the primary energy currency of the cell.
- ATP production varies in different cell types.
- Aerobic and anaerobic ATP production interact during exercise.
Apoptosis and Oxidative Stress
- Oxidative stress occurs when reactive oxygen species (ROS) exceed the body's antioxidant defense capacity.
- Common ROS examples are hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radicals, and hydroxyl radicals.
- Apoptosis (programmed cell death) is different from necrosis (uncontrolled cell death).
- Apoptosis benefits the organism by eliminating damaged cells.
- Mitochondria play a crucial role in apoptosis.
- Environmental stressors can initiate apoptosis.
- ROS contribute to apoptosis.
Metabolism: Rest and Exercise
- Resting metabolic rate is influenced by factors like age, sex, and activity level.
- Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) is the maximum rate of oxygen uptake by the body during exercise.
- VO2 max can be calculated from heart rate and VO2 data, using formulas provided in the course.
- Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER) reflects the macronutrient being used.
- Exercise intensity and duration influence the bioenergetic pathways used for ATP production.
Hormone Regulation and Action
- Hormone concentration is determined by release rate, transport (free vs. bound), and metabolism.
- Hormones act on cells through direct gene activation or second messenger systems.
- The hypothalamic-pituitary axis is a key endocrine control center.
- The anterior pituitary releases and regulates growth hormone and thyroid hormone.
- Negative feedback loops regulate hormone release.
Hormonal Control of Glucose Homeostasis
- Glucose homeostasis is maintained differently in the absorptive state, postabsorptive state, and during exercise.
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Description
Explore the concepts of homeostasis, steady state, and circadian rhythms through this quiz. Learn about biological control systems, feedback loops, and the mechanisms that maintain stability in the human body. Test your understanding of these essential physiological processes.
