History of Women in Medicine

The belief that women's reproductive system is inherently deficient compared to men's, stemming from Galen's theory.

The idea that a woman's menstrual blood is not properly purified by heat, unlike men's semen, leading to a lack of 'heat' and potential for weaker reproductive capabilities.

The incorrect notion that one ovary produces male offspring (fed by purified blood from the kidneys) and the other produces female offspring (fed by less purified blood).

The long-held belief that the male contributes a complete embryo, while the female merely provides a nurturing environment.

The process of a wet nurse breastfeeding another woman's child, a common practice historically.

The widespread access to safe, effective, and socially accepted contraception, particularly the birth control pill, played a significant role in the changing family dynamics of the 1960s and 2013.

A diverse range of social revolutions occurred in the 1960s, often interconnected and driven by human rights concerns. These movements included the fight for women's liberation, civil rights, and gay rights.

The Stonewall riots, which began in 1969 at a gay bar in New York City, are considered a turning point in the fight for gay rights. This event marked a shift towards open protest and activism for LGBTQ+ rights.

Historically, male homosexuality was criminalized in many countries. England, for example, made male-to-male sexuality a crime punishable by death in 1533, and it was only repealed in 1861. This highlights the long-standing prejudice and legal discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals.

While same-sex marriage is now legally recognized in many countries, LGBTQ+ individuals continue to face harassment, discrimination, and violence. This underscores the ongoing challenges and need for greater social acceptance and protection.

LGBTQ2S+ individuals have faced obstacles in establishing their reproductive rights, often resorting to discreet, but risky, methods such as sham heterosexual marriages or adoption. As same-sex marriage has become more widely recognized, access to fertility clinics for LGBTQ2S+ families has grown, allowing for greater autonomy in starting families.

The concept of the "nuclear family" is being redefined to encompass LGBTQ2S+ families, challenging traditional notions of family structures and challenging societal norms. This shift reflects the increasing inclusivity and diversity of family forms.

Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) have played a crucial role in empowering LGBTQ2S+ families. They enable same-sex couples to conceive and raise children, providing greater autonomy and agency in creating families that look like their own.

The belief that promoting reproduction among those with 'good' genes, and limiting reproduction among those with 'bad' genes, will improve society.

A historical movement that encouraged women to use contraception to limit family size, especially among poor women in the early 1900s.

A legal act passed in England in 1861 that made it a felony for pregnant women to procure a miscarriage, punishable by life imprisonment.

A social and legal movement that advocated for women's right to control their own bodies and reproductive choices, specifically access to safe and legal abortion.

The idea that access to abortion is not just about individual choice, but also about addressing systemic social and economic factors that limit reproductive freedom, such as poverty and racial discrimination.

The belief that people should have the freedom to make choices about their own bodies and reproduction without facing social, economic, or political barriers.

The practice of controlling population growth through various means, often targeting developing countries and assuming they have a disproportionate impact on the environment.

The period in the 1960s and 1970s characterized by a shift in social attitudes toward sexuality, leading to a greater acceptance of sex outside of marriage and increased use of contraception.

A form of social control that uses morality and shame to pressure women into adhering to traditional expectations regarding reproduction and sexuality.

An organization founded by Margaret Sanger that provides access to contraception and abortion services.

A group of women in Chicago who provided safe and affordable abortions to women in the 1960s and 1970s.

The process of using hormones, particularly progesterone, to temporarily prevent ovulation, resulting in the development of the contraceptive pill.

The belief that reproduction should be separated from heterosexual relationships and marriage, allowing women to freely control their own reproductive choices.

The legal and social system that uses laws, policies, and cultural norms to control individuals' reproductive choices and behaviors.

The process of removing a woman's reproductive organs, often without her informed consent, usually targeting marginalized groups such as Indigenous and Black women.

A feminist perspective highlighting the interplay between medicine, gender, and power, recognizing how medical practices can be used to control women's bodies.

A concept that acknowledges the diverse ways LGBTQ2S+ communities build families and create kinship, going beyond traditional, biological ties and embracing various forms of family structures, like surrogacy, adoption, and chosen families.

The legal and moral recognition of non-traditional family structures, including those created through surrogacy, adoption, and other assisted reproductive technologies, allowing LGBTQ2S+ individuals to build families.

The practice of using a surrogate mother to carry a child for another couple or individual, where the child's biological parent may or may not be involved in the pregnancy.

The individual who gives birth to a child, even if they are not the child's biological parent, in situations like surrogacy or adoption.

Individuals who agree to financially and emotionally support a child, regardless of their biological relationship, often in legal situations like adoption or surrogacy.

The use of donated eggs, sperm, or embryos to achieve pregnancy, helping couples or individuals who cannot conceive naturally to build families.

The creation of 'penile dysfunction' as a medical condition, marketed as a lifestyle enhancement and addressed through medication like Viagra. This represents a trend of medicalizing natural aging processes, and the pharmaceutical industry's influence in defining health and well-being.

Hormonal treatments designed to address menopause symptoms. This represents the medicalization of menopause, with the pharmaceutical industry actively promoting these treatments as a solution for a perceived medical issue.

The commercialization of contraception, often promoted as medicine or a health benefit. This approach highlights the influence of the pharmaceutical industry in shaping perceptions of reproduction and women's health.

A contraceptive hormone that suspends ovulation for three months, resulting in a reduced number of menstrual periods. This highlights the trend of medicalizing and controlling menstruation, promoting a

Countries with the most legal NRT centers, based on a 2018 study by the Journal of Assisted Reproduction & Genetics. The numbers represent the approximate amount of centers present in each country.

International regulations for in vitro fertilization (IVF) and embryo research often mirror those established in the United Kingdom, but local differences may exist due to cultural, religious, or ethical considerations.

Countries that restrict access based on sexual orientaton. For example, 10 out of 22 European countries allow access to single women. However, only 7 European countries permit access to lesbian couples.

The higher the public funding for NRT, the greater the demand for its services. However, this increased demand can lead to restrictions on access due to limited resources or changing regulations.

As restrictions on NRT access rise, individuals may seek treatments elsewhere, leading to a surge in reproductive tourism.

A study conducted by Berg Brigham et al. in 2013 explored the impact of public and private funding (insurance) on NRT access and availability.

The process of freezing and storing eggs has been more complex and challenging to master compared to sperm and embryo freezing. This difference in complexity has resulted in a unique regulatory context for egg storage, due to its advanced medical and scientific requirements.

Mitochondrial DNA donation, a process allowing for genetic material from three individuals, has been approved in the UK and Canada. This technology has the potential to prevent certain genetic diseases.

The legal right to terminate a pregnancy, established in the 1973 Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade, was overturned in 2022 by the Supreme Court. This decision allows individual states to regulate or ban abortion, leading to significant regional variations in access.

A set of laws passed in several US states aimed at restricting access to safe abortions. These laws often involve burdensome regulations for abortion providers, creating barriers for women seeking essential healthcare.

State laws restricting abortion to a very early stage of pregnancy, typically within the first six weeks, often before many women know they are pregnant. These laws are often framed around detecting a fetal heartbeat.

A legal concept where an embryo or fetus is granted legal personhood rights, potentially impacting reproductive healthcare, including IVF and abortion.

The use of assisted reproductive technologies, including IVF, to help people start families. This technology involves fertilizing an egg outside the body and transferring the resulting embryo to the uterus. It is a complex and often expensive treatment that raises ethical and legal considerations, especially in the context of abortion restrictions.

A national anti-abortion bill that proposes recognizing an embryo as a person from the moment of conception. This could potentially outlaw IVF and other medical procedures related to embryos.

The practice of forcibly sterilizing individuals, often without their informed consent, to control population growth. This has been used historically in various parts of the world, and is considered a violation of human rights.

A complex and often controversial issue where developing nations are encouraged to limit population growth as a means of achieving economic development. This approach often involves promoting family planning and contraception interventions.

A term coined by Michelle Murphy, describing the persistent and often exploitative focus on the 'girl' from developing countries as the target of population control measures, often linked to assumptions about her education and agency.

A specific example of reproductive injustice in the US, where policies and practices have historically targeted marginalized communities, particularly women of color, with forced sterilization and limited access to contraception.

The intersection of race and reproductive rights, highlighting the historical and ongoing biases and discrimination that impact access to healthcare, particularly for women of color.

The legal right of adults to make informed decisions about their own bodies, particularly regarding sexual and reproductive choices. This encompasses access to accurate information, safe and effective contraception, and abortion care.

A concept that highlights the importance of addressing the underlying social and economic factors that contribute to health disparities, including those related to reproduction. It involves promoting fairness and equity in access to resources and opportunities.