History of Plant Classification
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Questions and Answers

Which key characteristic of Theophrastus' classification system distinguished natural plant groups?

  • Specific physical attributes
  • Presence of medicinal properties
  • Color of the flowers
  • Key characteristics including families (correct)

    • What was the primary limitation of the common names used in early plant classification?

  • They did not distinguish between species effectively (correct)
  • They were inconsistent in their capitalization
  • They were too scientific for general understanding
  • They were only in Latin and Greek

    • In what significant work did Carl Linnaeus introduce his binomial system?

  • Historia Plantarum
  • Species Plantarum (correct)
  • De Materia Medica
  • Philosophiae Naturalis Principia

    • What aspect of the binomial system is NOT a part of the rules set by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature?

    <p>The species epithet must be capitalized</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which period was the polynomial nomenclature initially used before the binomial system became prominent?

    <p>The Age of Herbals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What core change led to the enhancement of human social structures following the adoption of agriculture?

    <p>Formation of permanent settlements with specialized roles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did hunter-gatherers possess extensive knowledge of plant life?

    <p>Their survival depended on understanding plant cycles and habitats.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant incentive for early human populations to transition to agriculture?

    <p>Access to reliable food sources and trade routes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect significantly increased as a result of the shift from hunting-gathering to agricultural societies?

    <p>The efficiency in food production methods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did early human populations play in the domestication of plants?

    <p>They unintentionally affected plant evolution through foraging.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is considered a key advantage of agriculture compared to hunting-gathering?

    <p>Ensures a reliable food supply throughout the year</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Childe's theory, what triggered the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural practices?

    <p>Extended dry periods leading to resource competition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which regions did agriculture reportedly develop independently around the same time?

    <p>Asia Minor, China-Southeast Asia, and the Americas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors is believed to have contributed to the emergence of agriculture in arid regions?

    <p>The presence of edible wild plant species suited for domestication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Sauer's theory emphasize as critical for the development of sedentary agricultural populations?

    <p>Access to areas with abundant resources and favorable climates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of wheat is primarily used for pasta due to its hard grain and lower gluten content?

    <p>Durum wheat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main part of the wheat grain that serves as the food source for the developing embryo during germination?

    <p>White flour (semolina)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which wheat variety is sown in spring and has a growing season of about 90 days?

    <p>Spring wheat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the wheat grain is approximately made up of the germ?

    <p>6%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pericarp in the caryopsis of cereal grains?

    <p>To provide a hard outer layer that protects the seed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step in the milling process involves moistening the grain to toughen the bran?

    <p>Tempering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process occurs after the tetraploid bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) undergoes backcrossing?

    <p>It results in a hexaploid with 42 chromosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which major historical advancement is attributed to the accidental fermentation of wheat gruel?

    <p>The creation of leavened bread.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature differentiates a hexaploid wheat from a diploid wheat?

    <p>Hexaploid wheat arises from a series of hybridization events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cereal crop is primarily known for being tetraploid?

    <p>Durum wheat (Triticum durum).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following options correctly identifies the components of the pericarp in fruits?

    <p>Exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes superior ovaries from inferior ovaries in flowering plants?

    <p>The position of the ovary relative to the flower</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way is the classification of fruits based on their maturity important?

    <p>It influences the commercial viability and cultivation methods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fruit is derived from a single ovary on a single flower?

    <p>Simple fruit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are the majority of species in the Rose family characterized?

    <p>By having showy, insect-pollinated flowers produced in the spring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason most modern apple cultivars are triploid?

    <p>Their chromosomes cannot pair during meiosis, rendering them sterile.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics does NOT apply to the fruits of the Tomato Family?

    <p>They originate solely from Europe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant factor contributed to the initial rejection of the tomato in parts of Europe?

    <p>Belief that it was poisonous due to similar plants in the Tomato Family.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the source of heat in capsicum peppers, contributing to their varying levels of 'hotness'?

    <p>Capsaicin concentrated in the fruit's placental tissue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements regarding the domestication of tomatoes is accurate?

    <p>The wild progenitor of the tomato was small and pungent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason legumes are important for naturally improving nutrient-impoverished soils?

    <p>They produce root nodules that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein content percentage is generally found in dried kidney beans?

    <p>20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What essential nutrient is nitrogen primarily associated with in plants?

    <p>Proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following legumes is native to Central and South America?

    <p>Kidney bean</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of legumes is indicated by their fruit structure?

    <p>They have a single-chambered pod with seeds attached along one edge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of plant is Eragrostis tef classified as?

    <p>Herbaceous annual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region is NOT considered the primary area where Eragrostis tef was first domesticated?

    <p>South America</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of Eragrostis tef is primarily utilized for food production?

    <p>Seeds, milled into flour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is NOT associated with the processing of Eragrostis tef?

    <p>Fermentation of leaves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of plant is arugula classified as?

    <p>Herbaceous annual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the arugula plant is primarily used for food?

    <p>Leaves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the native distribution of arugula?

    <p>Temperate regions of Europe and Asia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is arugula typically prepared for consumption?

    <p>Raw in salads or as a garnish</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of plant family does arugula belong to?

    <p>Cabbage family (Brassicaceae)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    History of Plant Classification

    • Plant classification dates back to Ancient Greece.
    • Early systems were artificial, based on superficial similarities rather than evolutionary relationships.
    • Theophrastus developed the first plant classification system, around 2300 years ago, identifying key characteristics to distinguish plant groups.
    • The Age of Herbals (1470-1670) expanded early works, using common names which caused problems due to inconsistencies and language differences.
    • A Latin-based system of nomenclature was developed to address issues with common names.
    • Carl Linnaeus introduced the binomial system (genus + species epithet), still used today, including rules for capitalization, italicization, and authority designations.

    Plant Species and the Biological Species Concept

    • The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding individuals.
    • This definition is difficult to apply to plants due to spatial separation, fertile hybrids, and asexual reproduction (e.g., agamospermy in dandelions).
    • Plant taxonomists rely on morphological characteristics for classification, but morphology is influenced by environmental conditions (plasticity) and is constantly evolving.
    • Examples of plant species with diverse morphologies illustrating evolutionary adaptations to various environments were provided: potentilla, various fruits and vegetables, Ranunculus aquatilis, Rafflesia, South African parasitic plant, Titan Arum, Duckweed, Victoria Water Lily, Baobab trees, Socotra Dragon Trees, Giant Senecio, Azarella compacta, Colocynth.

    Evolutionary Relationships of Flowering Plants

    • Phenetic classification uses many characters, emphasizing conservative characters less affected by the environment. Favors floral characters like inflorescence type, flower structure, and fruit and seed types.
    • Darwin's Origin of Species spurred interest in phylogenetic classification focusing on evolutionary relationships.
    • Two competing 19th-century theories on flowering plant evolution existed: Engler's (simple, wind-pollinated ancestral flowers) and Hooker's (large flowers with numerous floral parts as ancestral).
    • Hooker's theory (modified by Bessey and Cronquist), suggesting evolution involved reduction in floral parts, fusion of petals, development of irregular corollas, and separation of sexes, is largely accepted today.
    • Molecular biology has confirmed the Hooker-Bessey-Cronquist system, though refinements have been made.

    Flowering Plants: Monocots and Eudicots

    • Traditional classification divides flowering plants (angiosperms) into monocots (one cotyledon) and eudicots (two cotyledons).
    • Distinguishing characteristics (with exceptions) include plant form, floral parts, leaves, and root systems.
    • Genetic research indicates that the monocot/eudicot division is simplistic. Magnoliid Angiosperms represent a third group evolving before the divergence of monocots and eudicots.

    Early History of Plants and People

    • Plant domestication began roughly 10,000 years ago.
    • Prior to this, humans were hunter-gatherers, nomadic due to seasonal food supplies.
    • Populations were kept below environmental carrying capacity.
    • Plants provided food, medicine, and psychoactive substances.
    • Hunter-gatherers possessed extensive botanical knowledge.
    • Some present-day groups still maintain a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, like the !Kung.
    • Incentives for settlement included reliable food sources, trade routes, and water supply.
    • Settlement led to more reliable food, larger populations, environmental control, and sedentary lifestyles.
    • Ethnobotanists and anthropologists study agricultural origins, including centers of origin, causes of agricultural development, societal dependence on agriculture, crop origins, and societal/cultural changes resulting from agriculture.
    • Sauer's hypothesis suggests that population increase forced settlement in less optimal areas, necessitating plant domestication.
    • Anderson's "weed precursor" theory proposes that plant hybridization in disturbed habitats created new food plants.
    • Binford and Flannery's hypothesis suggests that early gatherers were sophisticated cultivators who adapted to needs. These theories are not mutually exclusive.
    • In some areas, wild harvesting continued after agriculture began.
    • Agricultural development in Asia Minor challenges Sauer's hypothesis due to the climate.

    Centers of Agricultural Origin: Asia Minor (Near East)

    • Includes semi-arid regions of Iran, Iraq, and eastern Turkey (excluding Mesopotamian valleys).
    • Jarmo (Iraq) shows evidence of wild grain collection 10,000 years ago, wheat cultivation 8,750 years ago, and domestication of goats, sheep, pigs, and other plants (peas, lentils, etc.) soon after.
    • Movement to Tigris-Euphrates valleys occurred around 7,000 years ago, leading to sophisticated urban civilizations by 6,000 years ago.
    • Advanced agricultural practices (2500 years ago): Aztec irrigation, Mayan corn/bean selection, Inca potato domestication/irrigation.

    Selection Pressures on Plants

    • Plant characteristics result from genome evolution via natural selection.
    • Cultivation drastically modified wild plant characteristics.
    • The planting-harvesting link led to passive selection of beneficial cultivars.
    • Wild plants often have extended seed development and maturation for optimized germination.
    • Selection favored simultaneous seed maturation, reduced tillering, loss of seed appendages, loss of germination inhibitors, increased florets, and reduced day-length sensitivity in cereal crops.
    • Important crops introduced from the Americas: corn, papaya, pineapple, potato, sweet potato, tapioca, and chili peppers.
    • Coffee originated in northeast Africa.
    • Africa's indigenous food plants: coffee, sorghum, millet, yam, cowpeas, watermelon, sesame, and palm oil. Asia provided coconut, rice, and bananas; Near East: mango, eggplant.
    • The Americas had plentiful indigenous crops (corn, cassava, potatoes, etc.), while North America had few.
    • European colonists introduced crops like sugar cane, bananas, rice, etc. to the Americas.

    The Green Revolution

    • Focuses on high yield, at the expense of disease/pest resistance.
    • High-yield crops require more fertilizer, water, herbicides, pesticides, and mechanization; making them more vulnerable to weather anomalies.
    • It promoted technological farming, beneficial to wealthy countries but harmful to developing nations lacking resources.
    • Temperate-region crops often don't thrive in developing countries' climates.
    • Plant monocultures are highly susceptible to outbreaks (the Irish potato famine being exemplary).
    • Breeding for higher yields creates a "vicious cycle" with evolving pests/pathogens.

    Plant Breeding: Genetic Modification

    • The Green Revolution resulted from advances in crop breeding, soil fertility, pest control, and mechanization.
    • Methods include genetic crossing/backcrossing (maintains hybrid vigor), and cloning through grafting, cuttings, and tissue culture.
    • The University of Manitoba's triticale program (wheat x rye hybrid) demonstrated genetic crossing success.
    • Artificial chromosome doubling (polyploidy) using colchicine (from Colchicum crocus) creates larger, more robust plants.
    • Genetic mutations are used to develop new variations, as in the case of Brussels sprouts. Mutability is important for this.

    Agriculture's Origins and Development

    • Agriculture involves cultivating land for planting crops, ensuring a year-round food supply.
    • It emerged gradually from hunter-gatherer lifestyles, alongside animal domestication.
    • Independent development of agriculture occurred around 5,000-7,000 years ago in Asia Minor, China-Southeast Asia, and the Americas.
    • The Fertile Crescent (Iraq, Iran, eastern Turkey) shows the earliest evidence, possibly due to arid conditions necessitating reliable food sources and the presence of suitable wild plants. However, agricultural development in more humid regions may have been lost to time due to less-favorable conditions for preservation of archeological materials.

    Theories on the Shift to Agriculture

    • Childe's Neolithic Revolution: Extended dry periods concentrated humans and animals near water sources, favoring weedy grasses (precursors to cereal crops). This suggests a progression from hunter-gatherer to herder to cultivator.
    • Sauer's favorable habitats: Sedentary lifestyles developed first in areas with mild climates, abundant edible plants, good fishing, and sufficient water, leading to the development of sophisticated agricultural practices.

    Examples of Early Agricultural Practices (circa 2500 years ago)

    • Aztec (Mexico): Intensive irrigation agriculture.
    • Mayan (Central America): Selection of corn and bean cultivars.
    • Inca (Andes, South America): Potato domestication and irrigation systems.

    Selection Pressures on Cultivated Plants

    • The planting-harvesting cycle passively selected for agriculturally beneficial traits, even without deliberate selection.
    • Wild plants' traits were drastically modified under cultivation.
    • Selection favored traits like: uniform seed maturation; compressed tillering (reduced clonal shoots); loss of seed appendages; loss of germination inhibitors; increased florets; reduced day-length sensitivity; loss of shattering; increased seed food reserves.

    Weed Evolution Alongside Crops

    • Weeds persist through mechanisms such as shedding seeds before harvest or mimicking the crop plant's seed characteristics, making separation difficult.
    • Rye is a potential example of a weed that evolved alongside wheat.

    Geographic Origin and Spread of Plants

    • Most food plants initially had limited distributions.
    • The introduction of crops drastically affected agriculture and diets. Examples include the movement of potatoes from South America to Europe; tomatoes and chilies from South America to Europe and Asia; and sugarcane from Southeast Asia to the Caribbean.
    • Europe: Received crops from the Romans (peas, oats, rye), Arabs (rice, sugarcane, sorghum, citrus fruits), and the Americas (corn, potatoes) and Asia (rhubarb, almonds, apricots, peaches, coffee, black pepper).
    • Asia: Rice is a notable indigenous Asian food plant.

    Plant Breeding and Genetic Modification

    • The Green Revolution resulted from improvements in crop breeding, soil fertility, pest control, and farm mechanization.
    • Genetic crossing and backcrossing: Standard methods for developing new cultivars and maintaining hybrid vigor (e.g., corn).
    • Artificial chromosome doubling (polyploidy): Colchicine is used to induce polyploidy, often resulting in larger, more robust plants (common in cereals).
    • Genetic mutation: Spontaneous or induced mutations can produce useful traits (e.g., Brussels sprouts from cabbage).
    • Genetic engineering (GE): Involves adding genes from other organisms for pest, pathogen, or herbicide resistance. Faces consumer resistance in Europe and growing opposition in North America, due to concerns about environmental impacts and health. GE crops are often mistakenly termed Genetically Modified (GM) crops, which encompasses a broader range of methods including traditional breeding.

    Genetic Diversity

    • Maintaining genetic diversity is crucial for developing new crops and medicines.
    • The loss of older plant varieties is concerning, as they may contain useful genes.
    • The destruction of natural ecosystems, particularly rainforests, poses a significant threat to genetic resources.

    Cereal Crops: An Overview

    • Cereal crops, primarily wheat, rice, and corn, were crucial to agricultural development globally.
    • Cereal grains are a concentrated food source, rich in carbohydrates (starch), protein, oils, vitamins, and minerals.
    • Their low water content allows for long-term storage.
    • "True" cereals belong to the Poaceae (grass) family, producing a caryopsis (a dry, indehiscent fruit).

    Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

    • Originated in Asia Minor (present-day Iraq).
    • A hybrid complex from Triticum, Agropyron, and Aegilops genera, involving hybridization and chromosome doubling.
    • Initial hybridization of two diploid parents (2N=14) yielded a tetraploid (2N=28).
    • Backcrossing with a diploid parent and further hybridization/doubling resulted in a hexaploid (2N=42, 6x the base chromosome number N=7).
    • Archaeological evidence from Jarmo (Iraq) shows four cereal grains cultivated 9,000 years ago.
    • Early processing involved heating to remove inedible parts, grinding into meal for porridge or gruel.
    • Leavening of wheat gruel likely led to bread and alcoholic beverages.
    • Two main types: hexaploid bread wheat (T. aestivum) and tetraploid durum wheat (T. durum).
    • Durum wheat is used for pasta, semolina, couscous, and bulgar.
    • Other wheats include diploid einkorn (T. monococcum) and tetraploid emmer (T. dicoccum) wheat, first cultivated around 8,000 years ago, and hexaploid spelt wheat (T. spelta).
    • Modern bread wheat varieties are categorized into spring and winter wheat, distinguished by planting and harvesting times and growing seasons.
    • Spring wheat has a 90-day growing season (March-May), while winter wheat requires moist fall, mild winter, and snow cover.
    • Black stem rust fungus is a significant pathogen; breeding programs focus on disease resistance.
    • A wheat grain comprises the germ (embryo, rich in oils and protein), bran (outer coating, protein, enzymes, fiber), and endosperm (starch, the white flour).
    • Wheat processing involves cleaning, tempering (moistening), crushing to separate bran and germ (used for animal feed or whole-grain products), and separating the endosperm (white flour or semolina).
    • White flour, lacking bran and germ, has a longer shelf life but fewer nutrients; enrichment is common.
    • Wheat uniquely contains gliadin and glutenin proteins necessary for traditional leavened bread making.

    Corn or Maize (Zea mays)

    • Native to Central America, cultivated for at least 7,000 years.
    • Crucial to Mayan, Aztec, and Inca civilizations.
    • Modern corn is a mutated descendant of teosinte.
    • Unique "gendered" flowers: separate male (tassels) and female (ears) flowers facilitate hybridization.
    • Lower in protein (especially lysine) and some vitamins compared to other cereals. Lacks gluten.
    • Adapted to various climates, including temperate regions.
    • Primarily used for livestock feed, human consumption, and increasingly bioethanol production.
    • Various cultivars exist, including sweet corn, popping corn, and those for starch and other products.
    • High genetic mutability and easy hybridization are crucial for crop production.

    Rice

    • Consumed with minimal processing.
    • Processing involves threshing (separating grains from chaff) and pearling/polishing (removing bran and germ to produce white rice).
    • Polishing removes nutrients, especially thiamine (vitamin B1), leading to the risk of beriberi (symptoms include weight loss, sensory issues, limb pain, weakness, and emotional disturbance).

    Other Cereal Crops

    • Oats (Avena sativa): Primarily used for animal feed; a small percentage consumed by humans as oatmeal or rolled oats. Has high protein content but lacks gluten.
    • Rye (Secale cereale): Likely originated from S. montanum; thrives in cool climates and poor soil. Used for fodder and bread flour (often mixed with wheat). Low gluten content results in dense bread.
    • Fungal Ergot: Rye can be infected with ergot fungus (containing ergotamine, LSD-like compounds), causing severe symptoms (convulsions, paralysis, gangrene, hallucinations). Historically linked to epidemics and events like witch trials.
    • Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): Native to Africa, grown worldwide. Drought-resistant and used as a grain, livestock feed, and for making brooms. High in carbohydrates and protein.
    • Barley (Hordeum vulgare): Early evidence suggests it could be the first domesticated cereal (around 10,000 years old). Two-row and six-row varieties exist.Grown in cool-temperate climates and tolerant to salinity. Primarily used for animal fodder; a high-starch variety is processed into malt for beer and whiskey production. Malt production involves soaking, germination, and drying grains.
    • Millets (Various Species): Several species grown in hot, dry regions. Drought and poor soil tolerant. Whole grains store well, but ground grains quickly become rancid.

    Fruit Classification

    • Fruits are mature, ripened ovaries containing seeds. This botanical definition includes diverse structures like grains, legumes, nuts, and berries.
    • Fruit classification is based on ovary position (superior or inferior), fruit texture (fleshy or dry), and fruit type (simple, aggregate, or multiple).
    • Simple fruits develop from a single ovary of a single flower. Aggregate fruits arise from multiple ovaries of a single flower. Multiple fruits form from multiple ovaries of multiple flowers.

    Rose Family (Rosaceae)

    • Primarily temperate species, known for showy, insect-pollinated spring flowers.
    • Fruits are often fleshy, large, and animal-dispersed.
    • Economically important, with commercially grown apples and pears (mostly derived from species native to Central and East Asia).
    • Most apple varieties originate from Malus domestica. Modern cultivars are often triploid and sterile, propagated vegetatively.

    Tomato Family (Solanaceae)

    • Globally distributed eudicots, significant in South and Central American agriculture.
    • Includes edible fruits (tomatoes, peppers), tobacco, potatoes, and medicinal/poisonous plants.
    • Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is native to Central America, domesticated by Mayans. Initially met with suspicion in Europe due to poisonous relatives. Wild tomatoes were smaller and more pungent than modern varieties.
    • Sweet and hot peppers (Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens) originated in Central America; many cultivars exist with varying spice levels due to capsaicin concentration.
    • Eggplant (Solanum melongena) originated in India, exhibiting diverse size, shape, and color variations.

    Pumpkin Family (Cucurbitaceae)

    • Mostly tropical/subtropical vines with separate male and female flowers.
    • Female flowers develop into pepos (modified berries).
    • Highly mutable, significant in Old and New World agriculture. Fruits and seeds are important food sources; dried fruits were used for storage and vessels.
    • Cucurbita genus includes pumpkin, squash, and zucchini (native to Americas). Cucumis includes melons and cucumbers (native to Africa). Citrullus includes watermelon (native to southwest Africa). Other genera include chayote, luffa gourd, and bottle gourd.

    Heath Family (Ericaceae)

    • Primarily found in north temperate regions, often woody shrubs thriving in acidic soil.
    • Many are evergreen with thick, waxy leaves. Includes ornamental shrubs (rhododendrons, heathers).
    • Vaccinium genus includes blueberries, bilberries, lingonberries, and cranberries.

    Citrus Family (Rutaceae)

    • Mostly tropical/subtropical, with showy, fragrant flowers.
    • Economically important citrus species belong to the Citrus genus, producing hesperidia (modified berries with leathery skin and juice sacs).
    • Includes lemons, limes, oranges, mandarins, grapefruits, pomelos, and other species.
    • Valuable source of Vitamin C, historically crucial in preventing scurvy.

    Soapberry Family (Sapindaceae)

    • Includes longan, litchi, rambutan (Asia), and akee (West Africa). Akee is Jamaica's national fruit; only the aril is edible when fresh and naturally opened; immature or overripe arils can cause "Jamaican vomiting sickness."
    • Guarana (Paullinia cupana) from the Amazon region is a caffeinated fruit.

    Mulberry Family (Moraceae)

    • Economically important members produce multiple fruits.
    • Includes mulberries (temperate), figs (subtropical), breadfruit, and jackfruit (tropical). Breadfruit is starchy and requires cooking.

    Other Temperate Fruits

    • Grape (Vitis vinifera) – mostly used for wine production; some eaten fresh or dried (raisins).
    • Pomegranate (Punica granatum) – multi-seeded fruit with edible red aril pulp.
    • Kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa) – originally from China, commercialized in New Zealand.
    • Olive (Olea europea) – source of cooking oil; also processed as food after treatment with caustic soda.

    Other Tropical Fruits

    • Many subtropical/tropical fruits are wild-harvested or grown commercially on a small scale; some are not easily transported.

    Legumes: The Fabaceae Family

    • Legumes, also known as pulses, belong to the Fabaceae family.
    • This family includes both herbaceous plants (peas, beans) and woody trees (acacia, tamarind).
    • The fruit is a legume, a single-chambered pod with seeds attached along one edge.
    • Legume flowers have both male and female parts, resulting in an asymmetrical shape.

    Nutritional Value and Importance

    • Dried legume seeds are high in protein (25-30%), comparable to red meat.
    • They are a crucial protein source, especially for vegetarians and in areas with limited meat access.
    • Legumes contain all essential amino acids.
    • They are also important high-protein forage for livestock (clover, alfalfa).

    Nitrogen Fixation

    • Legumes form root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria.
    • These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into usable nitrate (NO3).
    • This mutualistic relationship benefits both the plant (nitrogen supply) and bacteria (sugars from the plant).
    • Excess nitrate from decomposing legumes enriches the soil.

    Economically Important Legumes

    • Common Bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris): Native to Central and South America; eaten fresh or dried; ~20% protein.
    • Pea (Pisum sativum): Cultivated for at least 7,000 years; native to the Mediterranean, Middle East, and northeastern Africa; seeds eaten fresh or dried (~25% protein).
    • Soybean (Glycine max): Native to East Asia; high in protein (35-40%); the world's most important legume crop; used in various food and industrial products.
    • Peanut (Arachis hypogaea): Native to Central and South America; unique characteristic of pushing the maturing fruit into the soil; used for oil, animal feed, and snacks.

    Tropical Pulses

    • Important seed protein sources in many parts of the world.
    • Examples include lima beans, broad beans, chickpeas, black gram, mung beans, black-eyed peas, asparagus beans, pigeon peas, and lentils.

    Other Important Legumes

    • Carob (Ceratonia siliqua): Subtropical tree; pods are a source of protein and sugar; used in food products.
    • Tamarind (Tamarindus indica): Large tree; sweet pulp around seeds used in tropical cuisines.
    • Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum): Used medicinally and as a food and spice source; important crop in India, Middle East, and Africa, both seeds and leaves are used.
    • Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra): Known since ancient times; native to the Mediterranean and central Asia.

    Botanical Information: Eragrostis tef

    • Belongs to the Poaceae family (grass family).
    • Herbaceous annual plant.
    • Native to the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia and Eritrea).

    History as a Food Plant: Eragrostis tef

    • First domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands.
    • Most widely grown in Ethiopia and Eritrea, also cultivated in other parts of East Africa.

    Utilization: Eragrostis tef

    • The seeds (grains) are primarily used.
    • Processing involves harvesting, threshing, winnowing, and cleaning to remove chaff and other debris. Further processing may include milling for flour or parboiling.

    Botanical Information: Eruca vesicaria (Arugula)

    • Belongs to the Brassicaceae (mustard) family.
    • Herbaceous annual plant.
    • Native distribution: Mediterranean region.

    Utilization of Arugula

    • The leaves are used as food.
    • Preparation typically involves washing and adding raw to salads or cooked as a vegetable.

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    Related Documents

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    Description

    Explore the evolution of plant classification from ancient Greek systems to modern nomenclature. Learn about key figures like Theophrastus and Carl Linnaeus, and understand the challenges of defining species using the biological species concept. This quiz covers the historical context and scientific breakthroughs in understanding plant taxonomy.

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