History of Computing

Brief History of Computing

• Computing has evolved continuously from basic counting to digital ecosystems.
• The history of computing is vast and spans centuries of innovation.

Early Beginnings

• The abacus, which dates back to around 3000 BC, is considered the earliest computing device.
• The abacus aided in basic arithmetic calculations.
• Other tools to aid calculations included the counting board, Napier’s bones, and the slide rule.

Events Computer Inventions

• 1623: Wilhelm Schickard invented the "Calculating Clock," a mechanical calculator capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• 1642: Blaise Pascal developed the Pascaline, a mechanical calculator that could perform addition and subtraction directly.
• 1673: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz created the Stepped Reckoner, a more advanced mechanical calculator that could also multiply and divide.

The Industrial and Pre-Digital Era

• In the 19th century, Charles Babbage conceptualized the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine, considered the first designs for a programmable computer.
• Ada Lovelace, often regarded as the first computer programmer, recognized the potential of machines beyond calculation.

The Industrial and Pre-Digital Era Inventions

• 1801: Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a loom that used punched cards to control patterns, demonstrating the concept of programmable machines.
• 1822: Charles Babbage designed the Difference Engine, a mechanical computer intended to calculate tables of numbers.
• 1837: Charles Babbage conceived the Analytical Engine, a general-purpose programmable mechanical computer, considered by many the first concept of a modern computer.
• Ada Lovelace wrote an algorithm for the Analytical Engine.
• 1890: Herman Hollerith developed a punch card-based tabulating machine for the 1890 US Census, significantly speeding up data processing.
• Herman Hollerith's company would eventually become IBM.

The Birth of Modern Computing

• The 20th century brought rapid advancements, including machines like the British Colossus and the American ENIAC.
• These early electronic computers used vacuum tubes and were designed for specific, military-related tasks.
• Alan Turing formalized algorithms and computation with the Turing machine, laying the groundwork for modern computer science.

The 20th Century Innovations

• 1930s: The first analog computers were developed, such as the Differential Analyzer by Vannevar Bush.
• 1936: Alan Turing introduced the concept of a Turing machine, a theoretical model of computation that lays the foundation for computer science.
• 1937: John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry began developing the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), considered the first electronic digital computer.
• 1941: Konrad Zuse completed the Z3, the first fully automatic, programmable digital computer.
• 1944: The Harvard Mark I, an electromechanical computer, was completed.
• 1946: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was unveiled as the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, though it was massive and required significant power.
• 1948: The Manchester Baby, the first stored-program computer, ran its first program.

The Evolution of Hardware and Software

• The invention of the transistor in the late 1940s and its miniaturization into integrated circuits during the 1960s revolutionized computing making machines smaller, faster, and more reliable.
• The development of the microprocessor in the early 1970s set the stage for personal computing.

Inventions During This Era

• The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the rise of home computers, with companies like Apple, IBM, and Commodore leading the way.
• 1950s: The invention of the transistor revolutionized computing, leading to smaller, faster, and more reliable computers, and early programming languages like FORTRAN developed.
• 1960s: The integrated circuit (microchip) was invented, further miniaturizing computers and increasing their power.
• The development of operating systems like UNIX enabled multitasking and more efficient use of computer resources.
• 1970s: The microprocessor was invented, leading to the development of the first personal computers (PCs).
• Companies like Apple, Commodore, and IBM released popular home computers, making computing accessible to individuals.
• 1980s: The IBM PC became the standard for business computing, and the rise of software companies like Microsoft further fueled the PC revolution.
• The internet began to grow, connecting computers worldwide.
• 1990s: The World Wide Web was created, making the internet accessible to the general public and transforming communication and information sharing.
• Personal computers became ubiquitous in homes and offices.

The Digital Age and Generations of Computers

• The late 20th century was defined by the advent of the internet transforming computers from isolated machines into globally connected devices.
• Advances in operating systems and software design made computers more accessible, and graphical user interfaces (GUIs) improved user interaction.
• Computers have gone through many changes, and there have been five generations of computers from around 1940 to 2023.
• Computers evolved over a long period of time, starting from the 16th century, and continuously improved themselves in speed, accuracy, size and price.
• The different phases of this long period are known as computer generations.
• 1st generation of computers was developed from 1940 to 1956, followed by the second generation from 1956 to 1963, the third generation from 1964 to 1971, the fourth generation from 1971 to 1980, and the fifth generation is still being developed.

1st Generation (1940s - 1950s)

• Key technology: Vacuum tubes.
• Characteristics: Large, bulky, generated a lot of heat, consumed a lot of power, had slow processing speeds, and used machine language for programming.
• Examples: ENIAC and UNIVAC.

2nd Generation (1950s - 1960s)

• Key technology: Transistors.
• Characteristics: Smaller, faster, more reliable than 1st-generation computers, less heat generation and power consumption, and used assembly language for programming.
• Examples: IBM 1401 and IBM 7090.

3rd Generation (1960s - 1970s)

• Key technology: Integrated circuits (ICs).
• Characteristics: Even smaller and faster than 2nd-generation computers, lower power consumption and increased reliability, and introduction of operating systems and high-level programming languages.
• Examples: IBM System/360, DEC PDP-11.

4th Generation (1970s - Present)

• Key technology: Microprocessors.
• Characteristics: Very large-scale integration (VLSI) allowed for complex circuits on a single chip, led to the development of personal computers (PCs), increased processing power and affordability.
• Examples: IBM PC and Apple Macintosh.

5th Generation (Present and Beyond)

• Key Focus: Artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced technologies.
• Characteristics: Emphasis on parallel processing, AI, and machine learning, development of natural language processing and computer vision, and use of ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration).
• Examples: AI-powered systems, robotics, and quantum computers

Basic Computer Components

• A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs operations, displays results, and stores data or results.
• It combines hardware and software resources for user functionalities.
• Hardware is the physical component and software is a set of instructions the hardware needs.
• There are three important components of a computer: the input unit, the central processing unit (CPU), and the output unit.

Input Unit

• Attached input devices make up the input unit.
• These devices take input and convert it into binary language.
• Common input devices: keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner.
• A user inputs data and instructions through devices like keyboards, mice, etc.
• The input unit provides data to the processor for further processing.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Once information is entered, the processor processes it.
• The CPU is the control center.
• The CPU fetches instructions from memory and interprets them.
• If required, data is fetched from memory or the input device.
• The CPU executes or performs the required computation, then stores or displays the output.
• The three main components of the CPU and their functions are:
  • Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
  • Control Unit (CU)
  • Memory registers

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

• The ALU performs mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division as well as comparisons to see which value is larger, smaller, or equal.
• The Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main and fundamental building block of the CPU.
• The ALU is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logical operations.

Control Unit

• The control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the CPU.
• The control unit directs the processor's operations, instructs the computer's memory, controls the arithmetic and logic unit, and dictates how input and output devices respond to the processor's instructions.
• The Control Unit also controls all the operations of the ALU, memory registers, and input/output units.
• The control unit carries out instructions stored in the program.
• The control unit decodes the instruction and interprets it.
• The control unit sends control signals to input/output devices until the required operation is done properly by the ALU and memory.
• Components receive signals from the control unit in order to execute instructions.
• The control unit is also the central nervous system or brain of the computer.

Memory Registers

• A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU used to store data that will be directly used by the processor.
• Registers can be of different sizes (16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, etc.).
• Each register inside the CPU has a specific function, like storing data, storing an instruction, or storing the address of a location in memory.
• User registers are used by assembly language programmers for storing operands and intermediate results.
• The accumulator (ACC) is the main register in the ALU and contains one of the operands of an operation to be performed in the ALU.
• The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of which can store data or instructions.
• Memory attached to the CPU is used for the storage of data and instructions, and and is called Internal, Primary or Main memory.
• Each memory location is of the same size and has an address.
• Programs copy data to the internal memory when executed.
• Internal, Primary or Main memory is also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), and the time of access of data is independent of its location in memory.
• The memory unit is primary storage, storing both data and instructions.
• Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit for later use.

Output Unit

• The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer.
• The output unit converts binary data into human-understandable form (monitor, printers, plotters, etc.).
• The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format and accepts information from the CPU.
• The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.

Input/Output Devices and Peripherals

• A computer peripheral is essentially any device that connects and expands the capabilities of a computer or allows for interaction with the system.
• Peripherals are not essential, but enhance the computer's usability and function.
• Peripherals are internal or external, but often refer to external devices like input and output devices.

Input Devices

• Input devices are used to enter information like game controls, shortcut icons, or data into a spreadsheet.
• Input devices include:
  • Keyboard
  • Mouse
  • Touchpad
  • Scanner
  • Webcam
  • Digital Camera
  • Microphone
  • Joystick
  • Gamepad (or Joypad)
  • Racing Wheel
  • Barcode Reader
  • Graphics Tablet
  • MIDI Keyboard
  • Fingerprint Scanner
  • Touchscreen
  • Light Pen
  • Trackball
  • Pointing Stick

Output Devices

• Output devices send data from a digital device to a user or another device.
• The use cases include viewing a photo, printing a document, or having a VoIP conversation.
• Output devices include:
  • Monitor
  • Projector
  • Television (TV)
  • Head-Mounted Display (HMD)
  • Speakers
  • Headphones
  • Earbuds
  • Printer
  • Plotter
  • Haptic Devices
  • Actuators
  • Braille Display
  • GPS (Global Positioning System) Device
  • VR (Virtual Reality) Headsets

Hardware, Software, and Humanware components

• There are three components of a computer system: hardware, software, and humanware.
• Computer hardware includes components that can be touched by the human hand.
• Computer hardware examples:
  • Display monitor
  • Keyboard
  • Mouse
  • Motherboard
  • Memory modules
  • Disk drive
• These parts are within the laptop/desktop computer - the keyboard and mouse are often external.
• The microprocessor chip, is also known as the CPU (central processing unit).
• New laptops merge the traditional CPU and the graphics processing chip (GPU) into an accelerated processing unit (APU).
• The CPU and APU are responsible for all arithmetic and graphics manipulation.
• Disk drives are just as important, storing computer data and classified as secondary memory.
• There are two popular types of disk drives: hard disks and solid-state disks.
• Hard disks are mechanical, storing data on magnetic, metallic platters and read magnetically - a sudden power outage can lead to data loss.
• Solid-state disks store data on flash memory chips and are less prone to erratic behavior, are faster, and more reliable.
• Another vital component is the motherboard, which provides communication and direct connectivity to devices.
• Connectivity to a motherboard is internal or external.
• Internal parts include:
  • Microprocessor (CPU)
  • Disk drive
  • Random access memory (memory modules)
  • Power supply unit (PSU)
• External Peripherals include:
  • Monitor
  • Keyboard
  • Mouse
  • Printer

Software

• The software component refers to the instructions, programs, data, and protocols that run on top of hardware and are retained temporarily and persistently in primary and secondary hardware media.
• The random access memory (RAM) chip is primary hardware, while the hard disk drive is secondary.
• Software categories: system software, application software, malicious software, and programming software.
• System software manages other software and devices (an example is the OS).
• The OS in a typical setup is the the first thing that is installed.
• Examples: Windows and Mac OS for traditional computers, and Android, iPhone OS, Windows Phone OS and Firefox OS for mobile devices.
• Application software is designed for end-users to perform specialized work like word processing (Microsoft Word, Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw, and AutoCAD fall into this category).
• A bundle of applications is known as a software suite and examples include Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, and iWork.
• Software is written in computer languages such as Visual Basic, C, and Java.
• The software component is stored on optical media, disk drives, or cloud storage spaces.
• Malware is short for malicious software to maim normal operations of a computer.
• Malware attacks can result in data loss and hacker access and affected computers can be converted into zombies for criminal activities like DoS attacks.
• Malware is delivered as viruses, trojans, rootkits, keyloggers, worms, adware, spyware, ransomware, and scareware (usually via email and websites).
• Programming software consists of tools used by developers to create kinds of software (also called code languages).
• High-level languages examples: Java, Javascript, BASIC, PHP, Visual Basic, Visual C++, Visual Basic, Python, Ruby, Perl, and Java.

Humanware

• The humanware component refers to the person using the computer, making hardware and software productive.
• Extensive testing on software packages and hardware is done to ensure the end user is aided when creating all forms of raw and finished data.

Diverse and Growing Computer/Digital Applications

• There is continuous growth in computer and digital applications including data analysis, cloud computing, robotics, coding, graphics, social media, video editing, communication and telemedicine and many more
• Machine learning analysis: Utilizes algos to extract valuable insights into large datasets and various industries
• Cloud computing: Providing scalable and flexible computing through online platforms (Google Drive, Dropbox and Office 365)
• Robotics: Development of automated systems using intelligent capabilities and expanding into manufacturing and healthcare
• Coding: The foundation for building software applications, websites and games using skilled coders
• Computer graphics: Utilizing technology to create visual content for entertainment, design and education
• Social Media: Platforms allowing users to connect, share content and interact online
• Video Editing: Editing and manipulating video footage for both professional and personal use
• Digital platforms: Utilizing remote healthcare and patient monitoring for communication and medicine
• Computer Aided Design (CAD): allows for the creation of 3D models and designs using software, used across industries
• Data mining: Extracting patterns and insights using advanced algorithms
• Electronic health records (EHRs): Digital storage of patient medical information used for efficient access
• Real time tracking that utilizes wearing devices and systems. Patient Monitoring: Real-time tracking of vital signs and health metrics using wearable devices and remote monitoring systems
• Quantum Computing: technology allowing for complex problems and traditional computers
• Delivers video content over the internet for viewing Video Streaming: Delivering video content over the internet for live or on-demand viewing

Information Processing and its Roles in Society

• Information processing is a fundamental part of modern society, helping people make decisions and take actions, and it involves analyzing and interpreting information.
• Information processing helps people make informed decisions.
• Businesses use information processing to improve customer experiences, identify market trends, and develop new products.
• Data-driven decision-making helps governments to be more transparent.
• Information processing has made global communication possible.

The Internet, It's Applications, and Its Impact on the World Today

• The internet is a vast network connecting computers and devices with billions of interconnected connection points.
• The intent consists a Network of Networks that connects smaller networks
• It's a Global System that connects people globally
• Uses Standardized Protocols to ensure seamless device connection
• Enables Communication and Information Sharing by allowing access to other media
• Is Constantly Evolving thanks to new technologies
• Key Concepts: World Wide Web, IP Adress, Domain Name System (DNS), Packet Switching

Impact of the internet on Modern Society

• The internet connects people globally, altering society from cultural exchange to social and economic development with positives and negatives
• It provides effective communication and saves time
• Has altered shopping and banking and allows for global news access
• Improved education and job application access. The internet can also have the following negative effects:
• Illegal or inappropriate access
• Long periods of screen time resulting in negative health
• Social networking distraction
• Increase hacking risk

Applications of the internet

• Application Communication is global and social
• Information Access can be overloaded
• Education - offers new accessible opportunities
• Commerce is easier thanks to ecommerce payment options
• Offers remote work capabilities
• Allows for startup and entreprenurship
• Makes entertainment easier
• Facilitates activism
• Allows for privacy and security with an open Cyberspace
• Aids cultural communication

Computing Discipline Areas and Programs

• Computer science, or AI, is the study and design of systems that can function autonomously from human input. Machine learning is a subset of AI that mirrors the processes of the human mind.
• Programming languages are an integral part and optimizes languages to write complex programs.
• Computer algorithms and modeling predict outcomes and scientific computing helps scientists conduct. For example a computer might predict climate change.
• Computer scientists improve programs. It is the location for data. You can command from a computer Algorithm: A set of tasks and use It to retrieve and perform.
• Architecture focuses on how the design of hardware store connections. Organization is how to optimize those connections.
• Computer Security means creating software that is invulnerable to theft, destruction, or fraud.. Cryptography is a security measurement to protect data
• Databases and data mining focuses on organizing and store data. One emphasis is recall fast.
• Software engineering focuses on building software Systems. Design and Construction: The process consists of.
• Computer Graphics handles the display by using software. Rendering: Creating realistic images from models.

Job Specializations for Computing Professionals

Cybersecurity Analyst

• A professional who protects an organization's network and recommends safeguards to keep information confidential, authorizing internal employees to use parts of the network by creating the best environment.

User Experience Researcher

• Data expert that analyzes what people want when using digital programs and determines satisfaction through research.

Video Game Designer

• Designer for mobile devices, computers, and gaming systems that tests the game to make navigation is easy.

Business Intelligence Analyst

• Professional that makes companies more successful using expertise in data science to determine success

Database Administrator

• Software overseer of user login credentials, as well as someone that surveys to help create confidentiality and remove viruses.

UX Designer

• Professional who develops for computers programs by prioritizing the end-users needs and is functional enough to help reach goals

System Engineer

• A designer of systems such as engineer programs that maximizes the efficiency and safety of their team.

Algorithm Engineer

• Professional who is the head of developing and implementating algorithms and sets of rules.

Front-End Developer

• Industry expert who has built the website. Creates languages so users can navigate. Makes everything user friendly.

Network Security Engineer

• Installs safeguards on computer. Analyzes the performance to external threats by encrypting the main data.

Full-Stack Developer

• Technology specialist who manages all elements and examines programs developing a lot of internal architexture

Software Engineer

• A specialist who particiapates in the development of new software or videos.

The Future of Computing

• Robotic systems will evolve rapidly
• Breakthroughs in science
• Control over electronics will be unprecedented
• The internet of things is what can command appliances
• Cars will start on their on and devices will communicate by themseleves
• homes will get smarter
• quantum computing is a way to revolutionize computers using mechanics and qubits
• Desktop virtualization makes people use computers virtually creating new offices
• The future of medicine and biotechnology will be revolutionizing

Artificial and Optical Intelligence

• This will use computers and automation and allows us to access data like never before
• Engineered Particles can access speeds faster