History of Cognitive Psychology
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Questions and Answers

What was the primary focus of the 1943 article by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts?

  • The comparison of human brains to computers. (correct)
  • The limitations of computers in human behavior.
  • The development of Turing machines.
  • The effectiveness of behaviorism as a psychological model.

What argument did Karl Lashley present against behaviorism's S-R models?

  • Computers can be programmed to replicate human thought.
  • Human thinking cannot be represented solely through strings of S-R connections. (correct)
  • S-R models accurately represent human behavior.
  • Behavior is completely controlled by external stimuli.

Which issue does the concept of the homunculus address in the context of behavior?

  • The existence of a decision-maker within the brain controlling actions. (correct)
  • The role of external stimuli in decision making.
  • The reliance of behaviorists on quantitative measurements.
  • The innate programming of machines to mimic human behavior.

What was a key outcome of the 1948 California workshop regarding behavior and computers?

<p>Increasing acceptance of the purposiveness of behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did B.F. Skinner accuse Edward Tolman of failing to explain in his experiments with rats?

<p>The reality of behavior without a central decision-maker. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What year is associated with the rise of cognitive psychology?

<p>1956 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which psychology paradigm was emphasized in Europe particularly during the rise of behaviourism?

<p>Gestalt Psychology (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does radical behaviourism emphasize in its approach to studying behavior?

<p>Inductive scientific methods (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cognitive psychology primarily view behavior in comparison to behaviourism?

<p>As influenced by invisible cognitive factors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which technique introduced by J. Ridley Stroop is commonly used in cognitive psychology?

<p>Stroop Effect (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of behaviour does radical behaviourism particularly focus on, according to Chiesa in 1994?

<p>Environmental factors influencing behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was a notable influence on both cognitive psychology and behaviourism?

<p>Gestalt Psychology (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one criticism that some researchers have against cognitive psychology?

<p>It overlooks individual variations in behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Karl Lashley challenge in his discussion on behavior?

<p>Radical behaviorism's tenets (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who introduced the concept of logical operations using values 0 and 1?

<p>George Boole (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did technological advances during WWII influence views on human cognition?

<p>They led to a new understanding of information handling by the human brain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Alan Turing demonstrate about simple machines based on Boolean logic?

<p>They could simulate more complex machines. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of multiple brain regions and neural circuits in processing information?

<p>Complex interactions mediated by neurotransmitters (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant change occurred in technology during World War II that impacted cognitive science?

<p>Engineers developed machines with enhanced communication and information handling capabilities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the implications of information being represented as logical operations?

<p>It provides a framework for understanding the intersection of technology and cognitive science. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the outcomes of the early development of computers by the end of World War II?

<p>The ability of computers to store and transform information using algorithms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Georg Sperling's research?

<p>To investigate memory trace loss. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Sperling test the immediate memory of participants in his experiment?

<p>Using a tone cue to indicate which row to recall. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon did Sperling aim to demonstrate with his findings?

<p>The ability to store full information for a brief period. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model did Sperling's findings support?

<p>Broadbent's model. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested as a baseline for language acquisition according to Chomsky?

<p>Innate knowledge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the critical roles of grammatical information in language acquisition?

<p>It is a learned aspect based on innate knowledge. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What overall question does the content raise about behaviourism and cognitive psychology?

<p>Has cognitive psychology replaced behaviourism? (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements aligns with the conclusions of Sperling's experiment?

<p>Less stimuli can be remembered when named. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core idea of Classical Behaviorism?

<p>Behavior is learned through environmental conditioning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Radical Behaviorism differ from Classical Behaviorism?

<p>It considers the impact of reinforcements and punishments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key concepts are associated with Purposive Behaviorism?

<p>Cognitive maps and latent learning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant movement emerged after World War II in response to Behaviorism?

<p>Cognitive Psychology. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of the Hixon Symposium held in 1948?

<p>Cerebral mechanisms in behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which psychologist introduced the concept of operant conditioning?

<p>B.F. Skinner. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did cognitive psychology primarily emphasize after its emergence?

<p>The importance of cognitive processes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Classical Behaviorism?

<p>Consideration of cognitive processes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism allows for comparing current performance levels with desired outcomes?

<p>Information feedback (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What pivotal event in 1956 is associated with the emergence of cognitive psychology?

<p>End of the behaviorism era (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do psychologists relate to software engineering as highlighted in the content?

<p>They develop programs simulating human behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept was previously required for explaining certain types of behavior before the rise of information feedback?

<p>Humunculus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key concept in cognitive psychology that emerged due to advances in computer capabilities?

<p>Information processing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does an algorithm play in the context of cognitive psychology?

<p>A list of instructions converting input to output (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best summarizes the impact of the computer age on perceptions of intelligence?

<p>It showed machines could perform tasks traditionally requiring human intelligence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who published an influential article on the limits of short-term memory in 1956?

<p>George Miller (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Classical Behaviorism

A school of thought in psychology that focuses solely on observable behavior and the relationship between stimuli and responses.

Radical Behaviorism

A branch of behaviorism that emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping behavior, using reinforcement and punishment.

Purposive Behaviorism

This approach acknowledges the importance of cognitive processes, such as mental maps and latent learning, in understanding how organisms learn and behave.

Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental processes, including perception, attention, memory, language, and reasoning. It emerged as a response to the limitations of behaviorism.

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The Hixon Symposium

This event marked a significant shift in the field of psychology, bringing together researchers from various disciplines to discuss the brain's role in behavior.

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Cerebral Mechanisms

The processes and functions within the brain that control and enable various cognitive and physical activities.

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John von Neumann

This influential mathematician highlighted the importance of a theoretical framework in understanding the brain and behavior.

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History of Psychology

The study of the historical development of psychological theories, concepts, and methods.

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Boolean Operations

A set of operations that use only two values, 0 and 1, to represent information. These operations form the basis of computer logic.

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Serial Order in Behavior

The idea that complex behaviors can be broken down into simpler, chained actions, each triggered by a specific stimulus.

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Information Processing

The ability of a system, like a computer or the brain, to process and manipulate information.

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Mathematical Models of Brain Function

Mathematical tools and techniques used to understand the workings of the brain and how information is encoded and processed.

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Information Transformation

The process of transforming information from one form to another, often used in computers and communication systems.

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Parallel Processing in the Brain

The brain's ability to perform multiple tasks simultaneously using different areas and neural pathways.

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Brain-Computer Analogy

The idea that the brain's ability to process information is analogous to the way computers operate, sharing principles like processing units, memory, and algorithms.

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Boolean Operations in the Brain

The idea that a system, such as a computer or brain, can process information using logical operations like AND, OR, and NOT. These operations are fundamental in decision-making and problem-solving.

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Limitations of S-R Connections

This concept argues that a simple chain of stimulus-response connections cannot adequately explain complex human thought processes.

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The Liberating Metaphor of Computers

The idea that computers, with their ability to process information, can provide a valuable model for understanding the workings of the human mind.

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The Homunculus Problem

The challenge of explaining how goals and intentions influence behavior without resorting to the idea of a miniature person (homunculus) inside the brain making decisions.

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Cognitive Map

An internal representation of the environment that allows an organism to navigate and make decisions based on spatial relationships, even without direct sensory input.

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Information Feedback

The process where the current performance level is compared to the desired outcome. The difference between these two is then used to adjust performance towards the desired outcome.

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Homunculus

A hypothetical miniature human inside the brain responsible for thought and consciousness. This concept was used to avoid explaining how the brain produces thought.

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Simulation of Human Thinking

The idea that human thinking can be simulated by computer programs.

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Turing Test

A test to determine if a machine can exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from a human.

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Algorithms

A set of instructions that transforms an input into a desired output through a series of defined steps.

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Psychologists as Software Engineers

The idea that psychologists can be seen as software engineers, working on the 'software' of the human mind.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI)

A branch of computer science that focuses on creating intelligent machines.

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Sperling's Full Information Storage Theory

A theory that suggests information is fully stored for a brief period, but quickly fades from memory.

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Sperling's Iconic Memory Experiment

A type of experiment that uses visual displays of letters, numbers, or objects to test the capacity and duration of iconic memory.

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Sensory Memory

The ability to process and recall information retrieved from sensory memory, lasting for a few seconds. This is the initial stage of memory.

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Selective Attention

The process of selecting specific information from sensory memory for further processing in short-term memory.

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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

An innate mental capacity that allows humans to acquire language easily and effortlessly, proposed by Noam Chomsky.

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Universal Grammar

Universal principles and rules that govern the structure and function of language, believed to be present from birth.

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Short-term Memory

The stage of memory that holds a limited amount of information for a short period, typically about 20 seconds.

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Encoding

The process of transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory through repetition and engagement.

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Continuity despite the cognitive revolution

This viewpoint insists that behaviourism's emphasis on environmental influence on behaviour remains relevant, even alongside cognitive psychology.

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Purposive Behaviorism (Tolman)

This type of learning focuses on how organisms learn through internal mental processes like forming cognitive maps, even in the absence of immediate reinforcement.

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Inductive Scientific Method

This method leans on experiments and observations to draw conclusions, compared to relying on hypotheses and deductions.

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Stroop Effect

One of the key techniques in cognitive psychology, it demonstrates the interference between different processing systems in the brain.

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Gestalt Psychology

This school of thought is influenced by the idea that we perceive and organize stimuli into meaningful wholes, emphasizing the role of perception and organization in understanding the world.

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Behaviourism's Contribution to Understanding Behaviour

This view emphasizes the impact of environmental factors on shaping behaviour, suggesting that much behaviour can be explained through the interplay of environmental stimuli and responses.

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Behaviourism's limited influence

Despite its dominance in the US, this school of thought didn't have the same widespread impact in Europe or other parts of the world.

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Study Notes

History of Cognitive Psychology

  • Hixon Symposium (1948): A key event, scientists including mathematicians and neurophysiologists compared the mind to information-processing machines
  • Criticisms of Behaviorism: The Hixon Symposium challenged behavioral theories, emphasizing information processing instead of just observable behavior.
  • Warren McCulloch (1898-1969): Neurophysiologist who contributed to cybernetics; co-authored "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" which demonstrated a Turing machine could use a network of neurons, and the neuron as the basic logic unit of the brain.
  • Karl Lashley (1890-1958): Zoologist/psychologist who studied learning through observing rats with cortical lesions; later highlighted limitations in behaviorist theories, emphasizing that complex sequential tasks require hierarchical control, not simply signals traveling up and down the brain.
  • John von Neumann (1903-1957): Mathematician, physicist, and computer scientist that made major contributions to computation, self-replicating machines and game theory.

The Dartmouth Workshop (1956)

  • Key event in the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI): Key figures in AI and Cognitive Psychology including John McCarthy convened this influential event
  • Claude Shannon (1916-2001): Developed information theory, defining information mathematically, analyzing how information can be transmitted, and how it can be reconstructed with low probability of error.
  • Allen Newell & Herbert Simon: Developed the General Problem Solver (GPS) program, a computer program that could solve simple problems.
  • Marvin Minsky & Oliver Selfridge: Pioneered artificial neural networks, inspired by biological neural networks.

Noam Chomsky: Universal Grammar

  • Critique of Behaviorism: Argued that behaviorist models couldn't explain how children learn language so quickly
  • Innate Mechanisms: Proposed that language acquisition is partly due to innate (universal) syntactic structures & grammatical principles..
  • Chomsky's Evolving Views: Later expanded his views, describing a grammar primarily focused on computational recursion.

The Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies (1960)

  • George Miller (1920-2012): Foundational work in information processing, noting the human memory span ~7 items. Suggested memory is not limited by "bits" but by "chunks"
  • Jerome Bruner (1915-2016): Led this intellectual movement
  • Contributions: Facilitated the study of internal representations and processes, re-opened dialogue with psychologists abroad whose research was not impacted by behaviorism, and helped train a generation of psychologists
  • Purpose: To study the mind and the nature of internal representations by examining the internal process in the way computers process information.

Connectionism (Parallel Distributed Processing)

  • Rumelhart & McClelland (1986): Proposed connectionism as a tool for explaining mental abilities through artificial neural networks.
  • Neural Networks: Simplified models of the brain, comprised of interconnected units that form connections based on their impact.
  • Focus: Connectionism challenged innate, grammatical principles. It offered a mechanistic alternative with learnable connections.

Cognitive Psychology: Theses and Methods

  • Information Processing Models: Diagrams used to depict information/process storage and transmission. Boxes represented temporary stores of information, and arrows represented processes transforming and transmitting the information.
  • Broadbent's Filter Model (1958): Outlined stages of a filter-based attentional system.

Cognitive Science and the Cognitive Revolution

  • Marr's Levels: Suggested three levels (Computational, Algorithmic, and Implementational) to understand information-processing systems.
  • David Marr (1945-1980): Integrated results from psychology, artificial intelligence, and neurophysiology, producing a new model of vision.
  • Overall Summary: The cognitive revolution spurred a shift towards cognitive science; research into different computational models, with debates regarding mechanist explanations & the interplay of nature and nurture.

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Description

Explore the significant milestones in cognitive psychology, including the pivotal Hixon Symposium of 1948. Learn how figures like Warren McCulloch and Karl Lashley contributed to the evolution of the field by challenging behaviorism and emphasizing the importance of information processing in understanding the mind.

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