History of Cancer Research

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What historical observation first connected cancer to an external cause?

The high incidence of scrotal cancer among chimney sweeps.

What discovery in the 1800s led to a better understanding of cancer's cellular origins?

The discovery that living tissues are composed of cells and all cells arise from other cells.

How did the observation of high lung cancer rates among pitch blende miners contribute to the understanding of cancer?

It reinforced the idea that cancer could be linked to identifiable and preventable causes, further driving the search for cancer-causing agents.

What two conflicting views about cancer's origin emerged in the late 19th century? Briefly describe each view.

The two conflicting views were that cancer is either an infectious disease or hereditary. The infectious disease view was based on the discovery of bacteria causing other diseases, while the hereditary view was based on observations of cancer running in families. Signup and view all the answers

What discovery in 1895 provided evidence for the view that cancer could be caused by chronic irritation of tissues?

The discovery of X-rays. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the discovery of X-rays supports the idea that cancer can be caused by chronic irritation of tissues.

The observation that exposure to X-rays could cause localized tissue damage, which could lead to cancer development, supported the idea that chronic irritation and inflammation could contribute to cancer. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main challenge posed by the conflicting theories about cancer's origin in the mid-20th century?

The confusion and lack of a definitive understanding of the origin and causes of cancer. Signup and view all the answers

How did the varying incidence of cancer in different populations influence the understanding of cancer's origins?

It suggested that external factors might influence cancer development, leading scientists to investigate environmental causes. Signup and view all the answers

What was the key discovery in 1910 that helped scientists understand the cause of cancer?

The discovery that a submicroscopic agent isolated from a chicken tumor could induce new tumors in healthy chickens. Signup and view all the answers

What crucial understanding about the role of cellular genes in cancer development arose from studying cancer-causing viruses?

The intensive study of cancer-causing viruses focused researchers' attention on cellular genes as central players in cancer development. Signup and view all the answers

How did investigations into the association between cancer and tissue damage contribute to understanding the disease?

These investigations indicated that while visible damage sometimes occurs, something more subtle happens at the cellular level. Signup and view all the answers

What connection did Herman Muller's work on X-irradiation of fruit flies suggest?

A potential connection between X-rays' ability to promote cancer and their ability to cause genetic mutations. Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the work by Bruce Ames and others in 1975 regarding the correlation between carcinogens and mutagens?

It provided strong support for the idea that carcinogens cause cancer by damaging genes. Signup and view all the answers

What was Alfred Knudson's contribution to understanding the origins of retinoblastoma?

He proposed a genetic model explaining the origins of retinoblastoma and reconciled the view of cancer as a disease caused by external agents with the familial inheritance of some cancers. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between sporadic and familial retinoblastoma based on Knudson's model?

Sporadic retinoblastoma requires two somatic mutations, while familial retinoblastoma requires only one additional mutation because individuals inherit one mutation. Signup and view all the answers

How did Knudson's model influence scientists' understanding of cancer?

It suggested that many cancers might be linked to the inheritance of mutated versions of growth-suppressing genes. Signup and view all the answers

What key understanding about cancer cells did cell biologists contribute to the unified view of the disease?

Cancer cells are indigenous cells, abnormal cells arising from normal body tissues. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the understanding that virtually all malignant tumors are monoclonal?

It means that each malignant tumor originates from a single ancestral cell that underwent a transformation from normal to cancerous. Signup and view all the answers

How did transplantation studies contribute to understanding the origin of cancer cells?

They revealed that cancer cells are derived from the patient's own tissues, not from external sources. Signup and view all the answers

What does tissue-typing reveal about the origin of tumor cells in a cancer patient?

Tumor cells of a particular cancer patient are always of the same transplantation type as the cells of normal tissues located elsewhere in the person's body. Signup and view all the answers

Describe a key method used to determine the monoclonal origin of tumors.

Transplantation studies and tissue-typing tests, which show that tumor cells are of the same transplantation type as other cells in the individual's body, provide evidence for the monoclonal origin of tumors. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how scientists were able to determine that tumors are monoclonal.

Transplantation studies and tissue-typing tests revealed that the tumor cells of a cancer patient are always of the same transplantation type as the cells of normal tissues located elsewhere in the person's body, indicating that the tumor originated from a single ancestral cell within the individual's tissues. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main scenarios that explain how cancers develop within normal tissues?

The two main scenarios are polyclonal tumor development, where multiple cells become cancerous, and monoclonal tumor development, where a single cancerous cell gives rise to the entire tumor. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key cellular marker used to demonstrate the monoclonal origin of tumors?

The inactivated X chromosome in female cells. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the process of X-chromosome inactivation and how it aids in understanding tumor development.

X-chromosome inactivation occurs randomly during female embryonic development, with different X chromosomes being inactivated in different cells. This random inactivation allows scientists to trace the lineage of cells within a tumor, as all cells originating from the same ancestor will have the same X chromosome inactivated. This supports the idea of monoclonal tumor development. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the development of cancer involves a series of clonal expansions.

Cancer development begins with a single ancestral cell undergoing genetic transformation. This cell, and its descendants, proliferate over time, acquiring new traits and forming distinct subpopulations within the tumor. Each acquisition of a new trait represents a clonal expansion, with the successful trait driving further tumor growth. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of genetic instability in cancerous cells?

Genetic instability in cancer cells leads to rearrangements, duplications, and deletions of chromosomes, giving rise to diverse characteristics within the tumor. This contributes to the heterogeneity of cancerous cells within a single tumor. Signup and view all the answers

How do the nuclei of cancer cells differ from normal cells?

Cancer cells have larger nuclei that often occupy most of the cell's volume, unlike normal cells where the nucleus is only about one-fifth the size of the cell. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between normal and cancerous cells in terms of growth?

Cancer cells have lost the growth restraints that characterize normal cells. They divide uncontrollably, show no contact inhibition, and have a reduced reliance on growth factors, whereas normal cells exhibit controlled growth and dependence on growth factors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the ability of cancer cells to divide for an apparently unlimited number of generations?

This ability enables tumors to continuously grow without the constraints that normally limit cell growth, leading to uncontrolled proliferation and tumor expansion. Signup and view all the answers

What was the key contribution of Ames and others to understanding cancer?

They established a relationship between mutagenicity and carcinogenicity, providing support for the idea that chemical carcinogens directly induce mutations in cellular genes, leading to abnormal cell growth and potentially cancer. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the model for cancer initiation based on the work of Ames and others.

Carcinogens damage cellular genes, leading to mutations in critical genes. These mutations trigger abnormal cell growth in the affected cell and its descendants, ultimately resulting in tumor formation years later. Signup and view all the answers

How can the model based on Ames' work explain the family history of cancer?

If inherited mutations in critical genes predispose individuals to cancer, then family members who share these mutations are more likely to develop cancerous cells, explaining the increased risk of cancer in families with a history of the disease. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three specific characteristics of cancer cells discussed in the text?

Cancer cells are genetically unstable, have larger nuclei than normal cells, and have lost their normal growth restraints. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of contact inhibition and how it differs between normal and cancerous cells.

Normal cells exhibit contact inhibition, meaning they stop dividing upon contact with other cells. However, cancer cells lack this inhibition, leading to uncontrolled proliferation despite contact with other cells. Signup and view all the answers

Briefly describe the unified view of cancer that emerged by the mid-1970s.

Cancer was understood to be initiated by mutations in critical genes, triggered by carcinogens or inherited mutations. These mutations lead to abnormal cell growth and ultimately tumor formation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main flaw in the early explanation of cancer-causing mutations?

The early explanation lacked knowledge of the specific genes involved in causing cancer and their roles in the cell. Signup and view all the answers

What two categories of genes play major roles in triggering cancer?

The two categories are proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in their normal function?

Proto-oncogenes encourage cell division, while tumor suppressor genes inhibit it. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when proto-oncogenes become mutated?

They become oncogenes which stimulate excessive cell division. Signup and view all the answers

What are the consequences of mutations in tumor suppressor genes?

Mutations inactivate tumor suppressor genes, eliminating the inhibition of cell division. Signup and view all the answers

What is typically the role of proto-oncogenes in normal cell signaling?

They code for proteins involved in receiving and processing growth-stimulating signals from other cells. Signup and view all the answers

How do oncogenes contribute to cancer development?

Oncogenes cause the proteins in growth-promoting pathways to become overactive, leading to faster cell proliferation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of growth factors in normal cell signaling?

Growth factors stimulate cell division by binding to specific receptor proteins on the surfaces of neighboring cells. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how oncogenes can lead to the overproduction of growth factors.

Some oncogenes cause cells to produce excessive amounts of growth factors, stimulating both the growth of neighboring cells and their own excessive division. Signup and view all the answers

How do mutations in other oncogenes disrupt the normal signaling cascade in cells?

They can cause aberrant receptor proteins to release stimulatory signals even without the presence of growth factors or disrupt signal transmission within the cytoplasm, leading to continuous stimulatory messages. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of tumor suppressor genes in the context of normal cell signaling?

They produce proteins that operate in inhibitory pathways, counterbalancing the growth-stimulating pathways. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how inactivated tumor suppressor genes contribute to the development of cancer.

When inactivated, these genes prevent the flow of inhibitory messages to the nucleus, allowing cells to ignore normal growth restrictions. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the purpose and operation of the DNA repair system in cells.

This system detects and corrects errors in DNA, safeguarding against mutations caused by carcinogens or DNA replication errors. Signup and view all the answers

What are the consequences of failure in the DNA repair system?

If the system fails, errors become permanent mutations, potentially contributing to the development of cancer. Signup and view all the answers

Explain why the understanding of the specific genes involved in cancer is crucial for cancer research.

This knowledge allows targeted efforts in prevention, detection, and treatment by focusing on the specific genes that are driving the disease. Signup and view all the answers

What trend was observed in cancer survival rates from 1974-1976 to 1983-1990?

The overall survival rate for all cancer sites increased from 49.3 percent to 53.9 percent. Signup and view all the answers

Which group has shown particularly dramatic increases in cancer survival rates?

Children age 15 and younger have shown particularly dramatic increases in survival rates. Signup and view all the answers

What is one key factor contributing to the increase in cancer survival rates?

Improvements in cancer detection through new imaging techniques and tests are a key factor. Signup and view all the answers

What is a major concern regarding cancer symptoms in patients?

By the time symptoms occur, many tumors may have grown large and metastasized. Signup and view all the answers

In what ways have cancer treatment methods improved over time?

Cancer treatments are now more specific to the type of cancer involved, leading to better outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What metaphor is used by Hellman and Vokes to describe cancer research?

They compare cancer research to a Signup and view all the answers

What are two potential benefits of using 'molecular fingerprinting' to identify cancerous cells?

Molecular fingerprinting can be used to differentiate among tumors at the molecular level, enhancing the specificity of cancer diagnosis. It can also help identify which cancers are most likely to progress, allowing patients to avoid unnecessary treatment. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main components of the overall cost of cancer, as estimated by the National Cancer Institute?

The main components of the overall cost of cancer are direct medical costs, morbidity costs (lost productivity), and mortality costs. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of 'time lag' as it relates to the impact of unhealthful habits on cancer development.

The time lag refers to the extended period between exposure to cancer-causing agents and the actual appearance of the disease. This delay makes it challenging to identify a direct link between specific habits and cancer development in individuals. Signup and view all the answers

Identify the four levels of focus proposed by Willett, Colditz, and Mueller for cancer prevention efforts.

The four levels of focus are the individual, health care providers, the national level, and the international level. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary ethical concern related to cancer prevention and treatment in a pluralist society?

The ethical concern is ensuring that interventions aimed at preventing or treating cancer are implemented and used in a way that respects individual autonomy and choices, while prioritizing the overall well-being of the population. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of ethical considerations regarding cancer, what does the term 'interest' refer to?

'Interest' in this context refers to a participant's stake or involvement in a situation, particularly as it relates to their well-being and the potential impact of actions or decisions. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two primary categories of actions or qualities that are considered 'wrong' or 'bad' in relation to ethical considerations?

Actions or qualities that impair the interests of individuals, families, communities, institutions, or society are considered 'wrong' or 'bad' in ethical terms. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the significance of the observation that most cancers are monoclonal in origin.

The monoclonal origin of most cancers indicates that they arise from a single mutated cell that undergoes uncontrolled proliferation. Understanding this origin helps explain the clonal expansion and genetic instability observed in cancer development. Signup and view all the answers

What is the connection between cancer and tissue damage according to current scientific understanding?

Tissue damage can create an environment that promotes the development of cancer by stimulating rapid cell division and increasing the likelihood of mutations. This connection highlights the importance of minimizing exposure to carcinogens and other factors that can cause tissue damage. Signup and view all the answers

How does the discovery of X-rays support the idea that cancer can be caused by chronic irritation of tissues?

X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation that can cause significant tissue damage. The observation that long-term exposure to X-rays can lead to cancer supports the idea that chronic irritation of tissues can trigger the development of the disease. Signup and view all the answers

In what way did the discovery of X-rays contribute to the understanding of cancer's origins?

The discovery of X-rays, and their ability to cause tissue damage, provided further evidence that cancer could be linked to external agents and chronic irritation, rather than solely being a product of genetic predisposition Signup and view all the answers

How does the understanding of cancer development as a multi-step process involving a series of clonal expansions contribute to current approaches to cancer treatment?

Understanding that cancer development is a multi-step process involving multiple genetic changes and clonal expansions allows researchers to identify potential targets for therapy at different stages of the disease. This approach could lead to more personalized and effective treatments for different types of cancer. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important for scientists to study the genetic instabilities present in cancerous cells?

Studying genetic instabilities in cancerous cells helps shed light on the mechanisms that drive tumor growth and spread. Understanding these instabilities is crucial for developing new treatments that target the underlying genetic defects and suppress the growth of cancer cells. Signup and view all the answers

How do DNA repair gene mutations affect cancer development?

They damage a cell's ability to repair DNA errors, leading to more frequent mutations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the discovery that cancer-causing viruses can induce mutations in the cellular genes?

The discovery that certain viruses can cause cancer by inserting their DNA into the host cell's genome, leading to mutations, provided strong evidence that genetic alterations play a key role in cancer development. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the p53 protein play in preventing cancer?

The p53 protein halts cell division and induces apoptosis in abnormal cells. Signup and view all the answers

Why does the persistence of unhealthful habits pose a significant challenge to public health efforts aimed at reducing cancer rates?

Despite the evidence suggesting a link between unhealthful habits and cancer risk, many people continue to engage in those habits, making it difficult to prevent cancer through public health initiatives. This is partly due to the long time lag between exposure to cancer-causing factors and the development of the disease, making it hard to see the direct consequences of unhealthy lifestyle choices. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of telomeres in cancer cell proliferation?

Telomeres shorten with each cell division, limiting the number of divisions; cancer cells often evade this limitation. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the multistep process of cancer development.

Cancer develops over time as multiple mutations accumulate, leading to a malignant state. Signup and view all the answers

How does age correlate with cancer incidence?

Cancer incidence increases with age due to the accumulation of mutations over time. Signup and view all the answers

What effect do carcinogen exposures have on cancer risk?

Exposures to carcinogens increase the likelihood of harmful mutations occurring. Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of inheriting cancer-susceptibility mutations?

It means critical mutations are already present in all cells, advancing the tumor formation process. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the lag time between cancer-causing exposures and cancer onset.

There can be years or decades between exposure and cancer development as multiple mutations accumulate. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of apoptosis in cancer biology?

Apoptosis eliminates damaged cells, preventing cancer development when functioning correctly. Signup and view all the answers

How has the understanding of cancer evolved over time?

Cancer is now understood as a complex, multistep process rather than a result of single mutations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between cell division and cancer?

Cancer cells can proliferate indefinitely due to disruptions in normal division limits. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three key elements for measuring cancer impact in a population?

Incidence rate, mortality rate, and survival rate are the three key metrics. Signup and view all the answers

Why are cancer cells often resistant to chemotherapy?

Cancer cells that evade apoptosis are less responsive to treatments that rely on cell death. Signup and view all the answers

How do telomeres and telomerase relate to cancer cell immortality?

Telomerase enables cancer cells to maintain telomere length, allowing endless division. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program?

SEER aims to estimate cancer incidence and patient survival in the United States. Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate cancer incidence rate for children under age 15, according to 1991 SEER data?

The incidence rate was 14.1 cases per 100,000 children. Signup and view all the answers

How do lifetime risks of developing cancer differ between men and women in the United States?

Men have a 1 in 2 lifetime risk, while women have a 1 in 3 risk. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'relative risk' refer to in cancer epidemiology?

Relative risk compares the likelihood of developing cancer between individuals with a certain exposure and those without it. Signup and view all the answers

What is one significant finding regarding children and cancer in the United States?

Cancer is the second leading cause of childhood death after accidents. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of fatal cancer cases does hereditary mutation account for in the population?

Hereditary mutations account for less than 5 percent of fatal cancer cases. Signup and view all the answers

How can the exposure to certain carcinogens affect cancer risk?

Exposure to carcinogens increases the likelihood of cancer development depending on individual susceptibility. Signup and view all the answers

In cancer research, what does it mean to say a certain factor 'causes' cancer?

It means that exposure to the factor significantly increases the probability of developing cancer. Signup and view all the answers

What was the trend in cancer death rates noted by health officials in 1998?

There was the first sustained decline in the cancer death rate after decades of increase. Signup and view all the answers

Which two types of cancer were the most common among children as per the SEER data?

Leukemias and brain cancers were the most common, accounting for over half of childhood cancers. Signup and view all the answers

How does cancer incidence vary among different population groups?

Cancer incidence can differ based on factors like race, sex, age, and environmental exposures. Signup and view all the answers

What role does epidemiology play in cancer research?

Epidemiology helps identify factors associated with cancer development and informs prevention strategies. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'hard core' cancers in the context of population studies?

'Hard core' cancers are those that would occur even without external environmental influences or mutations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the general relationship between the skin tone of individuals and the risk of skin cancer?

Individuals with fair skin are more susceptible to developing skin cancer than those with darker complexions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of tumor suppressor genes in relation to cancer?

Tumor suppressor genes function to suppress or block the development of cancer by regulating cell division and maintaining genomic stability. Signup and view all the answers

How does ultraviolet (UV) radiation contribute to skin cancer development?

UV radiation can damage the DNA in skin cells, leading to mutations that may result in melanoma and other types of skin cancer. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the process of X-chromosome inactivation and its significance.

X-chromosome inactivation is the process where one of the two X chromosomes in female mammals is condensed and inactivated to ensure equal gene expression with males. Signup and view all the answers

What is xeroderma pigmentosum, and how does it relate to cancer risk?

Xeroderma pigmentosum is a hereditary condition that causes extreme sensitivity to sunlight and an increased risk of skin cancers due to inadequate DNA repair mechanisms. Signup and view all the answers

Why do dermatologists recommend sunscreens that block both UVA and UVB rays?

Dermatologists recommend this to provide comprehensive protection against skin damage that can lead to various forms of skin cancer, including melanoma. Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe public policy when no laws exist to regulate behavior?

De facto public policy. Signup and view all the answers

What role does science play regarding personal and public welfare?

Science assists individuals in making informed choices to enhance welfare. Signup and view all the answers

How is the relationship between scientific knowledge and human choices characterized?

The relationship is not linear; individuals can choose against sound knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What common approach is suggested for lung cancer prevention programs?

Improved general education and cultivating an anti-smoking ethos. Signup and view all the answers

What are two core values that influence ethical discussions regarding tobacco regulation?

Autonomy and protecting others from harm are two core values. Signup and view all the answers

What impact has the decline in cigarette use in the United States had globally in recent years?

It has been offset by a rapid increase in cigarette consumption elsewhere. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to think about other approaches to address social problems?

It helps to explore diverse solutions rather than relying on one single strategy. Signup and view all the answers

What is emphasized as essential to the process of ethical inquiry?

Ethical inquiry requires posing clear questions and seeking well-reasoned answers. Signup and view all the answers

How does pluralism affect ethical considerations in health policy?

Pluralism introduces diverse cultural approaches and ethical values, leading to varied interpretations. Signup and view all the answers

What significant challenge do individuals face despite the abundance of scientific data available?

It is increasingly difficult to deny the claims of science. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the goals of discussing the relationships among knowledge, choice, behavior, and human welfare?

To encourage critical thinking about these relationships in daily life. Signup and view all the answers

List two considerations that determine the viability of public policy regarding tobacco.

The costs of implementation and the urgency of the situation are two crucial considerations. Signup and view all the answers

What role does evidence play in shaping public policy about cigarette smoking?

Overwhelming evidence links cigarette smoking to lung cancer, supporting the need for policy restrictions. Signup and view all the answers

How does access to scientific and medical knowledge influence public behavior?

It may encourage better choices related to health and wellness. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential outcome of allowing unhealthy habits like smoking?

Public funds may be diverted from beneficial societal programs to cancer treatments. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'antismoking ethos' imply?

It refers to a cultural mindset that actively discourages smoking. Signup and view all the answers

What type of public policy is emphasized for addressing behavioral issues like smoking?

De jure public policy, which encompasses laws and regulations. Signup and view all the answers

Why may public policy not fully address issues like smoking addiction?

De jure public policy can struggle against the addictive nature of nicotine and tobacco marketing. Signup and view all the answers

What relationship must be understood when discussing human behavior and welfare?

The complex interplay between knowledge, choice, and behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a value that might conflict with public health interests?

Individual freedom can conflict with public health interests, such as tobacco use. Signup and view all the answers

What can significantly impact individuals' choices regarding health, despite available knowledge?

Personal behaviors and societal influences. Signup and view all the answers

Identify a fundamental ethical feature in addressing health-related tradeoffs.

Competing well-reasoned answers often exist due to the complex nature of ethical tradeoffs. Signup and view all the answers

How can improved education contribute to lung cancer prevention?

It raises awareness about the risks of smoking and promotes healthier choices. Signup and view all the answers

What important aspect of ethics ensures informed decision-making?

A solid foundation of information and rigorous interpretation is crucial for ethical decision-making. Signup and view all the answers

How do cultural factors influence health policy decisions internationally?

Cultural approaches lead to differing standards for marketing and using tobacco. Signup and view all the answers

What is one challenge faced by public policy in regulating unhealthy behaviors?

Social, cultural, and political factors can complicate the formulation of effective regulations. Signup and view all the answers

How does acknowledgment of diverse ethical values influence discussions on public health issues?

It reveals varying priorities that individuals assign to ethical considerations. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of health policy, what does de jure public policy refer to?

De jure public policy refers to rules and regulations enforced by government entities. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary age group at highest risk for Hodgkin lymphoma?

People aged 15 to 34 and those over 55 are at the highest risk for Hodgkin lymphoma. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of skin cancer classified as nonmelanoma?

Basal cell cancer and squamous cell cancer are classified as nonmelanoma skin cancers. Signup and view all the answers

Define oncogene and its role in cancer.

An oncogene is a gene that, when mutated, can promote uncontrolled cell growth, leading to cancer. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of palliative treatment in cancer care?

Palliative treatment aims to improve the quality of life without altering the disease's course. Signup and view all the answers

What is a precancerous polyp?

A precancerous polyp is a growth in the colon that often has the potential to become cancerous. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the term 'remission' in the context of cancer treatment.

Remission refers to the disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. Signup and view all the answers

What role does radon play in cancer risk?

Radon is a radioactive gas that can damage lung cells when inhaled, increasing lung cancer risk. Signup and view all the answers

Define 'relative risk' in relation to cancer exposure.

Relative risk compares the likelihood of developing cancer in those with a certain exposure to those without. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the SEER Program in cancer research?

The SEER Program collects cancer incidence data to inform epidemiological studies and public health policies. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes?

Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that regulate cell growth, while oncogenes are mutated forms that promote cancer. Signup and view all the answers

Describe what a sarcoma is.

A sarcoma is a malignant tumor that originates in connective or supportive tissues. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'staging' refer to in oncology?

Staging refers to the process of determining the extent of cancer and whether it has spread. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of telomerase in cancer cells?

Telomerase allows cancer cells to divide indefinitely by maintaining telomere length. Signup and view all the answers

How does radiation therapy work in cancer treatment?

Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells, often delivered externally or internally. Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'secondary tumor'?

A secondary tumor is a cancerous growth that develops due to metastasis from an original tumor. Signup and view all the answers

What is angiogenesis in the context of cancer?

Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels that usually occurs alongside the growth of malignant tissue. Signup and view all the answers

Define atypical hyperplasia.

Atypical hyperplasia is a benign condition where tissues exhibit certain abnormal features. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between benign and malignant tumors?

Benign tumors are noncancerous and do not invade nearby tissues, while malignant tumors can invade other parts of the body. Signup and view all the answers

What role does apoptosis play in cellular health?

Apoptosis is a programmed cell death process that helps maintain cellular health by removing damaged or unneeded cells. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the term 'carcinogenesis'.

Carcinogenesis refers to the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the BRCA1 gene?

The BRCA1 gene helps restrain cell growth, and inheriting an altered version increases the risk for certain cancers, like breast and ovarian cancer. Signup and view all the answers

Describe what a biopsy entails.

A biopsy involves the removal of a tissue sample to examine under a microscope for the presence of cancer cells. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of bone marrow?

Bone marrow is responsible for producing white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Signup and view all the answers

How does chemotherapy function in cancer treatment?

Chemotherapy uses anticancer drugs to inhibit the growth and proliferation of cancer cells. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'encapsulated' refer to in oncology?

Encapsulated refers to tumors that are confined to a specific area and remain compact. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary source of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)?

ETS comes from the burning end of a cigarette and the smoke exhaled by smokers. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes carcinoma in situ from invasive carcinoma?

Carcinoma in situ involves cancer cells that remain confined to their original location without spreading. Signup and view all the answers

What does etiology study in the context of disease?

Etiology studies the causes of abnormal conditions or diseases. Signup and view all the answers

How does gene therapy aim to treat cancer?

Gene therapy aims to alter genes to improve the body's natural ability to fight cancer or to enhance tumor sensitivity to treatment. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the purpose of clinical trials in cancer research.

Clinical trials aim to find better ways to prevent, diagnose, treat cancer, and answer important scientific questions. Signup and view all the answers

What are melanocytes responsible for in the skin?

Melanocytes are responsible for producing and containing the pigment called melanin. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of contact inhibition on normal cells?

Contact inhibition causes normal cells to halt division when they come into contact with neighboring cells. Signup and view all the answers

Explain what in situ cancer means.

In situ cancer refers to cancer that has remained within the tissue in which it originated. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the concept of combination chemotherapy.

Combination chemotherapy involves using two or more chemotherapeutic agents to achieve more effective treatment results. Signup and view all the answers

What is dysplasia, and how does it relate to cancer?

Dysplasia refers to abnormal cells that are not cancerous but may indicate a higher risk of developing cancer. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the fecal occult blood test?

The fecal occult blood test is used to reveal hidden blood in feces, indicating potential colon cancer. Signup and view all the answers

Define the term malignant as it relates to cancer.

Malignant refers to cancerous cells that can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Signup and view all the answers

What role do tumor suppressor genes play in cancer prevention?

Tumor suppressor genes help regulate cell division and prevent uncontrolled cell growth. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the term 'lifetime risk' in cancer epidemiology?

Lifetime risk refers to the probability that an individual will develop cancer over their lifetime. Signup and view all the answers

How can hyperplasia be characterized in relation to cell growth?

Hyperplasia is a precancerous condition marked by an increase in the number of normal cells lining an organ. Signup and view all the answers

What does the grading system of tumors indicate?

The grading system classifies cancer cells based on how closely they resemble normal cells and their probable growth rate. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the condition known as familial polyposis.

Familial polyposis is an inherited condition where several hundred polyps develop in the colon and rectum. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term metastasis refer to in cancer terminology?

Metastasis refers to the spread of cancer growth, or secondary tumors, to sites separate from the original cancer. Signup and view all the answers

What kind of tumors do benign fibroids represent?

Benign fibroids are non-cancerous uterine tumors made up of fibrous and muscular tissue. Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Origin of the term cancer

The term cancer comes from Greek 'karkinoma' due to its resemblance to crab limbs.

Hippocrates' observation

Hippocrates noted that veins from breast tumors resemble crab limbs over 2,300 years ago.