History Midterm #1 Flashcards

Neolithic Age

• Marked the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities around 10,000 BCE.
• Significant developments included domestication of plants and animals, pottery, weaving, and polished stone tools.
• Emerged independently in multiple regions, including the Middle East, East Asia, and the Americas, influenced by climate and available resources.
• Driven by population pressures, environmental changes, and the need for stable food supplies, alongside technological innovations.

Old Kingdom

• Refers to ancient Egypt from the Third to Sixth Dynasty, around 2000 BCE, characterized by powerful pharaohs like Djoser and Khufu.
• Known for monumental constructions, particularly the pyramids at Giza, which served as royal tombs.
• Hieroglyphic writing and religious beliefs developed during this era shaped Egyptian culture.
• Established divine authority of the pharaohs, emphasizing their role as intermediaries between gods and people.

Lycurgus

• Legendary figure in ancient Greece credited with creating the Spartan constitution in the 8th century BCE.
• Instituted the Great Rhetra, laws emphasizing military skill, discipline, and communal living within Sparta.
• Aimed to eliminate social divisions and promote cohesion among citizens to enhance Sparta's military readiness.

Osiris

• An ancient Egyptian god symbolizing kingship, death, and resurrection, depicted as a mummified king.
• Myth involves murder by his brother Seth, dismemberment, and resurrection by wife Isis, symbolizing life, death, and rebirth cycles.
• Worshiped throughout ancient Egypt with significant cult centers in Abydos and Memphis, around 5500 BCE.
• Offered hope for immortality to the deceased and reinforced societal norms of order, justice, and morality.

Sumer

• An ancient Mesopotamian civilization inhabited by Sumerians, existing around 4000 BCE.
• Known for innovations such as writing (cuneiform), the wheel, and advances in mathematics and astronomy.
• Located in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, termed the "Cradle of Civilization."
• Developed irrigation systems that boosted agricultural production, leading to urbanization and complex societies.

Socrates

• An influential ancient Greek philosopher active around 400 BCE, known as a founding figure of Western philosophy.
• Famous for the Socratic method, which stimulated critical thinking through dialogue and questioning.
• Lived primarily in Athens, where he emphasized the pursuit of wisdom and moral examination of life.
• Advocated that an unexamined life is not worth living and sought to challenge societal norms and beliefs.

Hammurabi's Code

• Established by Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty around 1700 BCE.
• One of the earliest written legal codes, comprising 282 laws covering various societal aspects.
• Issued in Babylon (modern-day Iraq), promoting justice, social order, and governance through clear laws.

Minotaur

• A mythical creature from Greek mythology, half-man and half-bull, born from Pasiphae and a bull sent by Poseidon.
• Resided in the labyrinth on Crete, consuming sacrificial victims sent from Athens.
• Existed during the Bronze Age and served as a narrative tool reflecting themes of punishment and fear.

Knossos

• An ancient city on the island of Crete, significant to Minoan civilization during the Bronze Age.
• Home to a grand palace complex showcasing advanced architecture and rich artistic depictions.
• Positioned near modern-day Heraklion, it was a cultural and economic hub facilitating trade in the Mediterranean.

Plato

• An ancient Greek philosopher, pupil of Socrates, and founder of the Academy around 400 BCE in Athens.
• Renowned for dialogues addressing ethics, metaphysics, and politics, influencing Western thought.
• Sought to understand reality, justice, and the human soul, advocating the pursuit of wisdom as fundamental.

Akhenaton

• An ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty around 1300 BCE, known for establishing Atenism.
• Moved the capital to Amarna and promoted the worship of the sun god Aten as the sole deity.
• Aimed to consolidate power and transform traditional religious practices and art styles.

Persian Wars

• A series of conflicts (around 400 BCE) between Greek city-states (Athens and Sparta) and the Persian Empire under Darius I and Xerxes I.
• Notable battles included Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, marking Greek resistance against Persian expansion.
• Sparked by the Persian Empire's attempts to conquer Greek territories, leading to a united defense by the Greeks.

Homer

• An ancient Greek poet from the 8th century BCE, attributed with the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey.
• His works explore heroism, fate, and the human condition, chronicling the Trojan War and Odysseus's adventures.
• His narratives form a significant cultural and literary foundation for Western civilization.

Moses

• A prominent figure in Abrahamic religions, born into a Hebrew family during Israelite slavery in Egypt.
• Led the Israelites out of bondage, parting the Red Sea, and received the Ten Commandments from God on Mount Sinai.
• Lived around the 13th century BCE, known for guiding his people toward the Promised Land and imparting divine laws.

Ashurbanipal

• The last notable ruler of the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 600 BCE, recognized for military achievements and cultural patronage.
• Collected an extensive library in Nineveh, preserving knowledge on various subjects such as literature and science.
• Aimed to maintain Assyrian dominance and foster learning, exemplified by his support for the arts and scholarship.

10 Commandments

• Presented to the Israelites by God, foundational moral principles for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• Outline ethical conduct regarding worship, morality, and interpersonal relationships.
• Believed to have been received at Mount Sinai in the 13th century BCE, guiding life and promoting justice within communities.

Cleopatra

• The last ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, known for her intelligence and political savvy, around 60 BCE.
• Gained prominence through relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony amidst Roman expansion.
• Resided in Alexandria, navigating complex politics to maintain her kingdom's stability and independence.

David

• Noted in biblical texts as the youngest son of Jesse, revered for his role as a shepherd and future king of Israel.### David
• Second king of Israel, following King Saul.
• Gained fame by defeating Goliath using a sling and a stone.
• Talented musician, played the harp for King Saul.
• United the tribes of Israel and established Jerusalem as the capital.
• Lived around 1000 BCE in ancient Israel.
• Born in Bethlehem and raised as a shepherd.
• Brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem.
• Known for deep faith in God and military prowess.
• Celebrated for writing psalms, reflecting devotion to God.
• Recognized as an ancestor of Jesus Christ in Christian theology.

Sophocles

• Renowned ancient Greek playwright from Athens.
• Authored over 120 plays; only seven complete tragedies survive, including "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone."
• His works explore themes of fate, morality, and human nature.
• Lived around 400 BCE, achieving fame in the cultural hub of ancient Greece.
• Dominant figure at the Dionysia festival in Athens.
• Contributions to literature have significantly influenced Western drama.

Greek Dark Ages

• Period of decline in ancient Greece affecting city-states and communities.
• Characterized by regression in literacy, art, and political structures after the Mycenaean collapse.
• Spanned around 1100 BCE.
• Impacted regions including Attica, Laconia, Boeotia, and Aegean islands.
• Resulted from factors such as invasions, internal unrest, and socioeconomic disruptions.

Mycenaean Civilization

• Flourished during the late Bronze Age, around 1600 BCE.
• Known for advanced architecture (e.g., Lion Gate) and intricate pottery.
• Left a written record known as Linear B, providing language insights.
• Located primarily on the Greek mainland, influencing parts of Crete and Anatolia.
• Success attributed to control of trade routes, especially for bronze.
• Declined due to invasions and internal strife.

Cyrus the Great

• Founder of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling around 500 BCE.
• Unified tribes and established the first Persian Empire, expanding it extensively.
• Promoted religious and cultural tolerance among conquered peoples.
• Ruled from Pasargadae in modern-day Iran; empire stretched from the Mediterranean to India.
• His leadership and principles influenced governance and diplomacy for future rulers.

Nebuchadnezzar

• Prominent Babylonian king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling around 600 BCE.
• Expanded the empire through military conquests, including Jerusalem's fall.
• Notable for architectural achievements, including the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
• Ruled from Babylon, in present-day Iraq.
• Aimed to consolidate power and wealth, showcasing Babylon's cultural prominence.

Assyrian Empire

• Major Mesopotamian civilization known for military organization and architecture.
• Rose to prominence in the 9th century BCE.
• Capital centered in Nineveh, encompassing parts of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran.
• Expanded aggressively to control trade routes and resources in the ancient Near East.

Delian League

• Ancient Greek alliance led primarily by Athens.
• Formed post-Persian Wars to defend against further invasions and maintain autonomy.
• Established around 400 BCE, initially centered on Delos, later moving to Athens.
• Aimed to provide collective security; tensions rose due to Athenian dominance, contributing to the Peloponnesian War.

Abraham

• Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• Known for demonstrating profound faith and obeying God's command, leading to Canaan.
• His story occurred around 2000 BCE, originating in Ur.
• Journeyed through various ancient Near East locations including Haran.
• Represents the importance of trust and obedience in monotheistic faiths.

Civilization

• Complex social organization characterized by urban development, governance, and cultural achievements.
• Involves the formation of cities, technological progress, and sophisticated infrastructure.
• Encompasses governance structures to maintain order and provide services to citizens.
• Produces diverse cultural achievements in art, literature, and religion.

Origins of Civilization

• Transitioned from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities around 10,000 years ago.
• Key regions include the Fertile Crescent, Nile Valley, Indus Valley, and Yellow River Valley.
• Agriculture led to food surpluses, population growth, and social complexity.
• Technological advancements, including writing and animal domestication, promoted urban development.

Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations

• Inventions include writing (cuneiform) that enabled knowledge transmission.
• Pioneers in mathematics and astronomy, impacting trade and scientific thought.
• Architectural achievements like ziggurats highlight engineering prowess.
• Advanced legal codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, established organized governance systems.

Sargon of Akkad

• Founder of the Akkadian Empire, significant ruler around the 24th century BCE.
• Centralized power and initiated bureaucratic reforms after usurping the throne.
• Expanded the empire from Sumer to parts of Anatolia, fostering cultural exchange.
• His legendary status includes miraculous tales of origins and achievements.

Gilgamesh

• Legendary king of Uruk, depicted as part divine and human in mythology.
• Starred in the epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest literary works.
• Oppressed his people until challenged by Enkidu, leading to adventures and personal growth.
• Sought eternal life, ultimately learning the value of wisdom over immortality.

Hammurabi

• Ruler of the Babylonian Empire, known for the Code of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC).
• Established one of the earliest written legal codes, with 282 laws addressing daily life.
• Oversaw infrastructure and cultural development in Babylon, consolidating the empire.
• His legal framework influenced governance for centuries.

Importance of Mesopotamian Civilization

• First cities marked a shift to urbanization, leading to complex social structures.
• Invention of cuneiform revolutionized communication and knowledge preservation.
• Technological innovations enhanced agriculture, mathematics, and architecture.
• Contributions established foundational elements for future civilizations.### Mesopotamian Architectural Achievements
• Ziggurats served as significant architectural features, influencing later styles.
• Use of arches and columns laid groundwork for future architectural developments.
• Innovations in urbanization, writing, and technology contributed to human progress.

Influence on Religious Developments

• Mesopotamian civilization was characterized by polytheism, with gods overseeing aspects of life.
• Key deities included Anu (sky), Enlil (wind), and Inanna (love and war), impacting surrounding cultures.
• Themes from the Epic of Gilgamesh echoed concepts found in later religious texts like the Hebrew Bible and the Quran.
• Religious practices included rituals and sacrifices, influencing future ceremonial traditions.
• Mesopotamian mythology and symbolism persist in modern art and literature.

Akkad

• Akkad, founded around the 24th century BCE by Sargon the Great, became the capital of the Akkadian Empire.
• Strategically located on the Euphrates River, enabling trade connections.
• Architectural achievements included ziggurats and palaces.
• Home to the development of cuneiform writing, essential for record-keeping and administration.
• The empire expanded significantly, covering much of Mesopotamia, reaching into Iran, Syria, and Turkey.
• Centralized governance with a law and taxation system maintained order, although internal challenges led to its decline by the 22nd century BCE.

Assyria

• The Assyrian civilization thrived from around the 25th century BCE to 609 BCE, covering northern Iraq, Syria, and Turkey.
• Renowned for military strength and innovations in warfare, including siege tactics and iron weaponry.
• Developed a sophisticated government, effectively managing diverse populations through a complex system.
• Cuneiform writing was utilized for administration and culture.
• Assyrian art featured intricate reliefs in palaces, often depicting warfare and royal ceremonies.
• The empire fell to a coalition of Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians in 609 BCE.

Assyrian Conquest of Egypt

• Occurred in the 7th century BCE under Esarhaddon, aiming to expand Assyrian control.
• Initial resistance from Pharaoh Taharqa was overcome, leading to the capture of Memphis in 669 BCE.
• Ashurbanipal reinforced Assyrian dominance by quelling uprisings and imposing direct rule.
• New administrative practices were introduced, affecting Egypt's power structure and culture.
• Cultural blending occurred, with Assyrian motifs influencing Egyptian art.
• Assyrian control persisted for decades but weakened due to internal strife and external threats.

Lost Tribes of Israel

• Refers to the ten tribes of Israel deported after the Neo-Assyrian conquest around 722 BCE.
• Assyrian policies of forced resettlement diluted tribal identities.
• Various theories suggest migrations to distant lands, but many claims lack solid evidence.
• The fate of the Lost Tribes remains a subject of fascination and speculation.

Nebuchadnezzar's Neo-Babylonian Empire

• Reigned from 605 to 562 BCE, leading a cultural and architectural golden age.
• Known for the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a monumental engineering feat.
• Expanded empire through military campaigns, notably the conquest of Jerusalem.
• Established a sophisticated administrative system, supporting trade and agriculture.
• Babylon became a center of commerce and culture, fostering religious tolerance.
• Conflicts with neighboring powers occasionally destabilized his reign.

Temple of Marduk

• Esagila, the Temple of Marduk in Babylon, symbolized religious and political authority.
• Constructed in the 6th century BCE under Nebuchadnezzar II, it housed the ziggurat.
• The temple complex served as a gathering place for ceremonies and rituals.
• Economic resources were allocated to support its operations and maintenance.

Babylonian Captivity of the Jews

• Spanning from the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, following the conquest of Jerusalem.
• Led to the displacement of the Jewish elite and the destruction of the Temple.
• Faced cultural assimilation; however, solidified Jewish identity and faith.
• Foundations for Judaism as a distinct entity emerged, influencing future practices.

Achaemenid Empire of Persia

• Originated in the 6th century BCE with Cyrus the Great, who enacted policies of tolerance.
• Empire expanded under Cyrus and Cambyses, incorporating Egypt and other territories.
• Darius I implemented bureaucratic reforms and initiated construction of the Royal Road.
• The Achaemenid Empire became the largest known empire before its later decline.

Zoroastrianism

• Founded by Zoroaster, emphasizing the duality between Ahura Mazda (good) and Ahriman (evil).
• Sacred texts are contained in the Avesta, which includes rituals and teachings.
• Magi served as priests, acting as mediators between the divine and followers.
• The Persian Empire adopted Zoroastrianism, marked by administrative tolerance through satraps.
• In later years, the empire suffered vulnerabilities, leading to defeat by Alexander the Great.

Major Periods of Egyptian History

• Archaic Age (3100-2686 BCE): Unification of Egypt; emergence of hieroglyphics.
• Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BCE): Known for pyramid construction; strong government.
• First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BCE): Characterized by political fragmentation.
• Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE): Cultural flourishing and territorial expansion.
• Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BCE): Marked by the Hyksos invasion.
• New Kingdom (1550-1069 BCE): A period of military conquests and prosperity.
• Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BCE): Political fragmentation and decline.
• Late Period (664-332 BCE): Persian conquest followed by periods of foreign rule.

Egyptian Religion & Politics

• Religion and politics intertwined, with pharaohs as gods on Earth maintaining Ma'at (cosmic order).
• Pharaohs viewed as descendants of gods with divine authority legitimizing their reign.
• Beliefs in the afterlife featured Osiris as the ruler, judging the dead.
• Amen-Ra symbolized life and power, prominent in the pantheon of deities.
• Temples were centers for religious and political activities, reinforcing the divine status of rulers.

Basic Outlines of Egyptian Religion

• Polytheistic belief system with gods like Ra, Osiris, Isis, Anubis overseeing various life aspects.
• Ma'at embodies order and truth, crucial for cosmic harmony.
• The afterlife held significant importance, influencing burial practices and societal norms.