History and Origins of Psychology

Origins of Psychology

• Descartes proposed that the mind and body are distinct entities (dualism), influencing the nature vs. nurture debate.
• Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior, mental processes, and affecting internal and external factors.
• Science emphasizes systematic methodology, evidence-based knowledge pursuit and application.
• Key features of science include:
  • Universal paradigm
  • Theory construction
  • Hypothesis testing
  • Deduction
  • Falsification
  • Replicability
  • Objectivity
  • Empirical methods
• In 1879, Wundt established the first psychology laboratory and adopted introspection.
• Introspection involves learning about personal mental states or processes, featuring mentality, first-person, and temporal proximity conditions.
• Wundt used structuralism: isolating conscious thoughts into basic components.
• Wundt's methods used standardized conditions to record data, allowing replication and reliable data.
• Skinner opposed introspection's subjectivity, as findings varied.
• In the 1930s, Skinner measured quantifiable private events through lab experiments.
• Testing allowed for objective measurement, controlling factors and marking psychology's scientific origins.
• Cognitive psychology flourished with the invention of the computer in the 1960s, providing a metaphor for the mind.
• Social learning theorists still agreed, but emphasized social application.
• Advances in brain scanning in the 1970s allowed objective observation and measurement of behavior's biological basis.

Behaviorism

• Behaviorist approach explains behavior acquisition and maintenance using classical and operant conditioning and only studies objectively measured behavior.
• Founders Watson and Skinner disagreed Wundt’s introspection.
• Learning laws are the same for humans/non-humans.

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is learning through associations between unconditioned and neutral stimuli.
  • UCS produces UCR.
  • NS paired with UCS produces UCR
  • NS becomes CS producing CR
• Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at a bell
  • Food (UCS) causes salivation (UCR).
  • Bell (NS) repeatedly paired with food (UCS) produces salivation (UCR).
  • Association is made.
  • Bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), producing salivation (CR).
• Extinction occurs if CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.
• Spontaneous recovery happens when the conditioned response reappears after extinction.
• Generalization occurs when similar stimuli elicit the same conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is learning where behavior is acquired and maintained based on consequences.
• Reinforcement increases likelihood and punishment decreases likelihood.
• Positive reinforcement = reward, negative reinforcement = avoid negative consequence.
• Skinner showed mechanisms of reinforcement.
  • Rats were rewarded with food when they pressed a lever.
  • Rats pressed a lever to avoid electric shocks.

Applications and Evaluation

• The role of classical conditioning explains phobias. For example, the aquisition and maintenance of phobias (Little Albert, Watson and Rayner, 1920). Phobias are treatable by the extinction of phobias.
• Classical and operant conditioning are different mechanisms that can be used in different scenarios.
• Scientific rigor is obtained with standardized methods & lab experiments, and increased reliability & validity
• Classical & operant conditioning-based therapies include token economies for managing offending behavior.
• Behaviorism sees behavior as reinforcement-caused, limiting free will ideas, suitable for animals but incomplete for humans.
• Animal research ethics show physical harm in Skinner's box and classical conditioning studies

Social Learning Theory

• Social learning theory: Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and vicarious reinforcement.
• An observer identifies a role model, imitates behavior, and is further motivated by vicarious reinforcement.
• Role models are attractive and have high status and same age and gender; can even been seen in media not in a physical setting.
• Identification combines observer associating with like role models desiring similar traits.
• Vicarious reinforcement = An observer sees the model rewarded for displaying a certain behavior, motivating observer to repeat behavior, in hope too receive the same outcome.
• Mediational processes intervene between stimulus and response.
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Motor reproduction
  • Motivation
• Mediation means behaviors don't need reproduction.
• Bobo Doll Study showed that children seeing the behavior of an aggressive role model, behaved same when non was around.
• Questions arise about role models and how others show influence in media and individual differences.

Evaluation

• Bobo Doll ignored the biological difference as boys exhibited significantly more imitative behavior compared to girls.
• Testosterone's influence can increase aggressiveness.
• Demand characteristics decrease the validity due to Bobo Dolls being specifically designed and made to be hit, resulting in particpants acting to please experimenter.
• Human cognitive and decision-making processes are more complex than that of animals.
• SLT has mediational role with more insight than behaviorism.

Cognitive Approach

• The scientific study of internal mental processes is possible.
• Cognitive psychologists draw from observing behaviors.
• Indirect measurement of cognition takes place
• Mental processes are separate from brain.
• Cognitive psychologists use computer models and theoretical methods to understand cognitive processes.
• The working memory model shows how the internal components are connected and made up of a central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer and visuo-spatial sketchpad.
• Mind has processes of input, a processor, and output. The computer idea came with crucial development in cognitive psychology.
• Schemas organize experiences and generate information.
• They act as shortcuts to avoid sensory overload, may distort perceptions, and alter judgment.
• Cognitive neuroscience focuses on neural connections involved in mental processes.
  • Wernicke used patient cases linking brain area damage to comprehension issues in the 1870s.
  • In the 1970s technology measured neural processes with specific brain functions.
  • Brain activity measured showing Wernicke's & Broca's area activated during the tasks and shows specific function.

Evaluation

• Current applications use new methods to analyze.
• Modern theory uses modern models.
• Scientific collection and objectivity increased science credibility in psychology thanks to cognitive neuroscience.
• Schemas are overly abstract and don't support enough evidence of observed mechanisms
• Understanding is useful for technology and human and computer behaviors.
• Soft determinism sees humans with limits and better explains complex compared to behaviorism.

Biological Approach

• Humans are made up of biological processes. The belief that mind relies on what is in brain and therefore is not separate from itself.
• To understand, the actions of genes, hormones, transmitters, and neurochemical mechanisms must be known.

Biological Basis

• Heritability quantifies genetic bases and has been shown with IQ

• Behavior is genetics and environment.

• Genotype is the physical expression.

• Phenotype is the physical expression.

• Epigenetics is the altering expression.

  • Markers from expression on gene.

• Evolution is the mechanism. Genetically determined helps to determine an advantage.

  • Behavior is transmitted.
    • Prepared stimuli avoiding water is from learned preparedness

• Changes mean organism changes hereditary traits

Application & Evaluation

• The knowledge can help to determine a genotype phenotype
• Mental drug research that can help and target towards disorders
• Drugs normalize the brains so it is helpful with the patients rather than making regular visits
• Biological states causes internal force, the systems blame genetic factors.
• Twins and studies can't show nature, also shows MZ twins is not all genetic. Twins raised in similar environments. Concluding behavior cannot solely be genetics.

Psychodynamic Approach

• Psychic determinism suggests that all behavior is caused by unconscious internal conflicts, over which we have no control.
• 3 ideas
• Levels for consciousness includes three levels: conscious, pre and un
• The mind can go subconscious and show contents.

Freud's Tripartile & Stages

• Freud viewed personality is made up of three components. id. ego and super-ego.
  • Id = is what is innate , operate based pleasure and demands.
  • Ego = Formed from life, the ego deals with internal conflicts as well as use defensive.
  • Superego = Formed end of age, and morality, based by parental conflict
• Freud made that suggestion is a series of developmental that have children and progress order.
• Each stages if there a issues and must resolve the next. Result in fixation.
• Oedipus and Electra Complexes are related with the little research. Hans where he feared father who has sexual desires towards his mother.

Evaluation

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Humanistic Approach

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