Statistics: Lecture 2
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of epidemiology?

  • Diagnosing and treating diseases
  • Promoting healthy behaviors in the community
  • Tracking the spread and causes of diseases in populations (correct)
  • Developing new pharmaceutical drugs

    • Which of the following best describes the role of epidemiologists?

  • Administering vaccinations to the public
  • Conducting clinical trials for new medications
  • Developing surgical techniques for treating diseases
  • Studying the impact of environmental factors on health (correct)

    • In the context of the text, what is a likely reason for public health officials and researchers to be called epidemiologists?

  • Their involvement in designing public health campaigns
  • Their contributions to pharmaceutical product development
  • Their expertise in conducting genetic research
  • Their focus on understanding disease patterns in populations (correct)

    • What would be an example of a topic that epidemiologists might study?

    <p>The impact of air pollution on respiratory health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key aspect of epidemiology?

    <p>Analyzing population-wide health data to identify trends</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do epidemiologists contribute to public health practice?

    <p>By conducting research to inform public health policies and interventions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which century witnessed the extension of epidemiology to injuries and violence?

    <p>20th century</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the studies by Doll and Hill link to smoking?

    <p>Lung cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Descriptive epidemiology covers which of the following?

    <p>Time, place, and person</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of data are usually displayed with a two-dimensional graph in descriptive epidemiology?

    <p>Case count or rate data over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does analyzing data by place in descriptive epidemiology help identify?

    <p>Communities at increased risk of disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Descriptive and analytical epidemiology' refers to the taxonomy of which of the following studies?

    <p>Observational studies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does analytical epidemiology look for?

    <p>Risk factors or etiology of a disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do time data in descriptive epidemiology usually reveal?

    <p>Number or rate of cases over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Richard Doll's studies find regarding lung cancer and smoking?

    <p>Lung cancer rate among smokers is significantly higher than non-smokers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which century saw the extension of molecular and genetic epidemiology?

    <p>21st century</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main public health message emphasized in relation to smoking?

    <p>If you smoke, quit as soon as possible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the study of epidemiology concerned with?

    <p>The distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, what did Hippocrates suggest might influence the development of a disease?

    <p>Environmental and host factors such as behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is considered the father of modern vital statistics and surveillance?

    <p>William Farr</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does epidemiology rely on for collection, analysis, and interpretation of data?

    <p>Sound scientific methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'specified populations' in the context of epidemiology?

    <p>The people in a community or population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did John Graunt analyze in his landmark publication in 1662?

    <p>Mortality data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'pattern' refer to in epidemiology?

    <p>The occurrence of health-related events by time, place, and personal characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'determinants' in the context of epidemiology?

    <p>The causes and other factors that influence the occurrence of disease and other health-related events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Hippocrates look at disease as, according to the text?

    <p>An imbalance in fluids (or humours)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What methods does epidemiology draw on from other scientific fields?

    <p>Biostatistics, informatics, economics, and social sciences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, what is health-related states or events?

    <p>Communicable and non-communicable diseases; injuries; birth defects; maternal-child health; occupational health; environmental health; behaviors related to health and well-being</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary purpose of John Snow's studies of cholera outbreaks?

    <p>To discover the cause of disease and to prevent its spread</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of map did John Snow create to show the geographic distribution of cholera cases?

    <p>Spot map</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did John Snow conclude about the Broad Street pump (Pump A)?

    <p>It was the primary source of water and the most likely source of infection for most persons with cholera in the Golden Square area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main reason given by residents for avoiding Pump B?

    <p>It was grossly contaminated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did John Snow's second investigation focus on?

    <p>Cholera mortality among districts serviced by different water companies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which water company moved its intake water works to a site well upstream from London to avoid contamination by sewage?

    <p>Lambeth Company</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Snow's second investigation, what was the difference in cholera death rate between districts served only by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company and those served only by the Lambeth Company?

    <p>More than 5 times higher in districts served only by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did Snow focus on the districts served by both water companies in his second investigation?

    <p>To compare households within a district except for the water supply company</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Snow identify for every house in which a death from cholera had occurred during his second investigation?

    <p>The water supply company</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key factor that Snow considered in his investigations of cholera outbreaks?

    <p>The location of water pumps in relation to households with cases of cholera</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Snow believe was the most likely source of infection for most persons with cholera in the Golden Square area?

    <p>The Broad Street pump (Pump A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on Snow's investigations, what did he believe to be a significant factor in the spread of cholera?

    <p>Contaminated water from specific pumps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who demonstrated through epidemiologic studies that water could serve as a vehicle for transmitting cholera?

    <p>John Snow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to the constant and/or usual presence of a disease (or infectious agent) in a population within a geographic area?

    <p>Endemic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the 1950s and 1960s, who linked lung cancer to smoking?

    <p>Doll and Hill</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'sporadic' refer to in epidemiology?

    <p>A disease that occurs infrequently and irregularly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the observed level of disease in a community called?

    <p>Baseline level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'pandemic' refer to?

    <p>An epidemic that has spread over continents, usually affecting a large number of people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'cluster' refer to in epidemiology?

    <p>Refers to an aggregation of cases, grouped in place and time, that are suspected to be greater than the number expected, even though the expected number may not be known.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to an increase, often sudden, in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in that area?

    <p>Epidemic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to an outbreak that is often used for a more limited geographic area?

    <p>Outbreak</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who extended epidemiology to molecular and genetic epidemiology in the 1990s?

    <p>John Snow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who extended epidemiology to injuries and violence in the 1980s?

    <p>John Snow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who focused on acute infectious diseases in the 1800s?

    <p>John Snow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a cross-sectional study, what do the key features typically include?

    <p>Taking a snapshot of a population at a single point in time and measuring disease prevalence in relation to the exposure prevalence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the utility of cross-sectional studies?

    <p>Public health planning and etiologic research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of cross-sectional studies?

    <p>They cannot infer the temporal sequence between the exposure and disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do ecological studies examine?

    <p>The rates of disease in relation to a factor developed on a population level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may be a population-level factor in ecological studies?

    <p>An aggregate measure summarizing the individual members of the population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of ecological studies?

    <p>They are unable to detect complicated relationships due to the crude nature of data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do ecological studies remain popular despite their limitations?

    <p>They can be done quickly and inexpensively since they often rely on pre-existing data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the focus of the bio-behavioral survey mentioned in the text?

    <p>HIV prevalence and use of United Nations General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) indicators in multiple cities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cities had the highest and lowest HIV prevalence in men who have sex with men (MSM), according to the survey data?

    <p>Barcelona (highest) and Bucharest (lowest)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the data show regarding condom use during anal sex across the surveyed cities?

    <p>Barcelona had the highest percentage of condom use, while other cities reported lower percentages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main public health concern highlighted by the survey data?

    <p>The high-risk sexual behavior documented and lower frequency of HIV test seeking behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does an ecological study examine?

    <p>The association between variables on an aggregate level without considering individual-level information</p> Signup and view all the answers

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