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Questions and Answers
What does the term 'dharma' refer to in Hinduism?
Which of the following deities is known as the fierce form and symbolizes transformation in Hinduism?
What is the sacred language of Hinduism?
Which social group in the Hindu caste system is associated with the role of priests?
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Who is considered the founder of Jainism?
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What concept suggests that a person's misfortunes are the result of their previous life's actions?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the five major urban centers of the Indus civilization?
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What was a significant contribution of the Neolithic site of Mergarh?
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Which temple is NOT an example of Hoysala architecture?
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What is a defining characteristic of Vijayanagara architecture?
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Which feature is unique to the temples from the Vijayanagara period?
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What is the primary function of a Kalyanamantapa in Vijayanagara architecture?
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Which of the following describes the 'Bada' in the context of an Orissan temple?
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Which temple features a series of 84 shikharas and showcases the influence of Tantrism?
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Which aspect of Orissan temple architecture symbolizes the human body?
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The temples in Orissa are noted for their:
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What is a distinctive characteristic of the Vesara style of architecture?
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Which feature is commonly associated with Chalukya temples?
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What role did stepwells serve in semi-arid regions of Gujarat?
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Which of the following is NOT a name commonly used for Jain temples?
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How are Jain temple cities typically structured?
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Which temple type is characterized by having a dome?
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What is a common feature of Jain temples that supports the structure's aesthetic?
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Which of these is considered a pilgrim site for both Jains and Hindus?
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What is the significance of the marble pillars in the Dilwara Temples?
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Which Mughal emperor is known for reaching the cultural peak of the Mughal Empire?
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What architectural style is exemplified by Humayun's Tomb?
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Which city served as a capital displaying great Mughal buildings?
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What material is notably used in the construction of the Taj Mahal?
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Who built Humayun's Tomb?
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Which event marked the decline of the Mughal Empire in 1739?
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What features are characteristic of the architecture during the Mughal period?
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What does Purusha symbolize in the context of temple architecture?
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What is the role of Sthapatis in temple construction?
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What is Vastu Shastra primarily concerned with?
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Which of the following is a crucial aspect of temple orientation?
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What is included in the Shilpa Shastras?
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In the context of temple construction, what is the significance of water?
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What does the term grama vinyasa refer to?
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Which material became the preferred choice for temple construction over time?
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Study Notes
Hinduism
- Brahma is the supreme god of Hinduism.
- Hinduism is a combination of Vedic philosophies and Brahmanical rituals.
- The word "Hindu" originates from the Indus River or Sindhu.
- Santana Dharma, meaning "immemorial tradition", is another name for Hinduism.
- Sanskrit is the sacred language of Hinduism.
- Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism all originated from Hinduism, sharing the concept of dharma.
- Dharma refers to moral order, duty, and right action.
- Key beliefs include reincarnation, karma, and ahimsa.
- Saktas are considered a debased sect of Hinduism, known for their erotic and sensual imagery.
- Durga is portrayed as a beautiful woman riding a lion, wielding weapons to vanquish evil.
- Kali is a fierce form of Durga, depicted as a destroyer of evil, wearing a girdle of severed hands and a necklace of skulls.
- The caste system, known as Varna, is an integral part of Hinduism:
- Kshatriyas are kings and warriors.
- Brahmins are priests.
- Vaisyas are merchants and farmers.
- Sudras are workers.
- Untouchables are outcasts.
Jainism
- Founded in the 6th century BCE by Vardhamana, also called Mahavira, meaning "Great Hero" or Jina, "Victorious One".
- Emphasizes asceticism and ahimsa, the practice of non-violence.
- The Agamas are the sacred texts of Jainism.
Indus Civilization
- Developed around the Indus River, based on the concepts of sacredness, universality, and ritualistic practices.
- Five major urban centers:
- Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
- Harappa
- Ganeriwala
- Dholavira (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
- Rakhigarhi
Mergarh
- A Neolithic site in Pakistan, considered the first urban civilization of South Asia (6500-6000 BCE).
- Precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization.
- Developed writing, counting, drainage systems, and irrigation techniques.
- Purusha represents energy, power, soul, or cosmic man.
- Temples were carefully aligned to the cardinal directions and celestial bodies.
STHAPATIS
- Temple priest-architects who design and construct temples based on sacred architectural principles found in the Agamic scriptures.
Kumbhabhishekam
- A consecration ceremony that lasts several days.
Pujas
- Acts of worship in Hindu temples.
Shilpa Shastras
- The science of arts and crafts, encompassing icons, stone murals, paintings, carpentry, pottery, jewelry, dying, textiles, etc.
Vastu Shastra
- The science of architecture, covering building houses, forts, temples, apartments, village and town layouts, etc.
- Temples are built in harmonious locations near water sources, forests, gardens, caves, or hills, abundant with plants and animals.
- The oldest temples built of brick and wood no longer exist.
- Stone became the preferred material, especially granite and sandstone.
Hindu Temples
- Found in diverse locations across India, incorporating various construction methods and styles:
- Mountain temples like Masrur
- Step well temple compounds like Mata Bhavani, Ankol Mata, and Huccimallugudi
- Forest temples like Kasaun and Kusama
- Riverbank and seashore temples like Somnath.
- The temple is typically located in the center of the village.
- The entire village layout is called grama vinyasa.
- The temple should always face east, considered the most auspicious direction.
- Materials used for temple construction vary from timber to mud, plaster, brick, and stone.
Hoysala Architecture
- Known for its intricate carvings and unique features.
- Finest examples:
- Chennakesava temple, Belur
- Hoysaleswara temple, Halebidu
- Kesava temple, Somanathapura
- Known as Karnataka Dravida style, distinct from traditional Dravida architecture.
Vijayanagara Architecture
- Ruled from 1343-1565 AD.
- Combines elements of previous South Indian architectural styles.
- Unique features include Yali columns, balustrades, and ornate pillared mandapas.
- Known for ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls), and Rayagopura (tower).
- Used durable granite, as the kingdom faced constant threats of invasion.
- Vijayanagara open air theatre of monuments is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Nagara Style Temples
- Examples:
- Temples at Khajuraho
- Visvanatha Temple (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
- Khandariya Mahadev & Jagadambi Temple
- Surya temple at Modhera
- Temples in Orissa (now Odisha)
Parasuramesvara Temple
- Located in Bhubaneswar, Orissa.
- Consists of a shrine and a hall.
- Orissan builders aimed to symbolize the human body in the vertical sections of the temple.
Parts of an Orissan Temple
- Based on the Lingaraja Temple at Bhuvaneswar:
- Bada: lower portion representing the foot of the human body.
- Gandi: main body representing the trunk.
- Mastaka: apex representing the head.
- Kapotas: main rolled cornice.
- Gavaksas: circular or horseshoe arch.
Vesara Style
- Combines Nagara and Dravidian styles.
- Originated in Karnataka.
- Sanctum is square.
- Vimana is circular or stellar.
- Dravidian influence is seen in decreasing the height of each storey and the use of ornamentation.
- Nagara influence is reflected in the vertical tower.
- Two special features:
- Mantapa roof: either domical or square ceilings.
- Pillars: miniature decorative pillars supporting the shikhara.
Stepwells
- Stepwells (vav) were integral to Gujarat, providing water for drinking, washing, and bathing.
- Served as venues for festivals and rituals.
- Example: Adalaj stepwell.
Jain Art and Architecture
- Offshoot of Hinduism and Buddhism.
- Moksha is the enlightened state.
- Initial monuments were rock-cut architecture, following Buddhist style.
- Reflects their principles of austerity.
- Monoliths are prominent structures.
- Tirtha: Temples and pilgrimage sites for Jains and Hindus.
- Other temple names: Derasar, Badi, Mandir.
- Concept of ‘mountains of immortality' which led to temples being built on hills.
- Fortified with high walls and parapets to prevent armed aggression.
- Considered the richest temples in the world, surpassing Mughal buildings in grandeur and wealth.
Two types of Jain temples:
- Shikar-Bandhi: Main temple with a dome:
- Dome: supported by beautifully carved marble pillars.
- Gambhara (Garbha Graha): main part of the temple with a stone carved idol.
- Ghar Jain temple: home temples without a dome.
- Examples:
- Solanki temple style of Gujarat: Dilwara Temples, Mount Abu.
- Ananthanatha Swami Temple, Puliyarmala.
- Temples may sometimes have a stupa.
- Hastinapur, Mathura.
- Free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars.
- Jain Temple in Ranakpur, Rajasthan: marble temple built on a hill with over 1444 unique pillars.
- Dilwara Temples, Rajasthan: 5 marble temples, famous for their intricate marble work.
- Kharatara Vsahi (Parshvanatha Temple): different architectural style.
Mughal Empire
- 1398: Mongol conqueror Tamerlane invaded India.
- Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane, founded the Mughal dynasty (16th-17th century).
- Akbar, Babur's grandson, was considered the greatest Mughal sovereign.
- The Mughal empire reached its cultural peak under Shah Jahan, Akbar's grandson, during the golden age of Indian Saracenic architecture, exemplified by the Taj Mahal.
- The empire faced decline after the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739.
- India eventually came under British domination.
Impact of Islamic Art and Architecture on India
- Influences from Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Mughals.
- Architectural styles included Persian, Byzantine, and Ottoman influences.
- The golden age of Mughal art occurred during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1659).
- Capitals of Agra, Delhi, and Lahore showcase magnificent buildings and structures.
- White marble and red sandstone were prominent materials used in architecture.
- Great Islamic Gardens like the Shalimar Garden in Lahore are notable examples.
Examples of Mughal Architecture
- Humayun's Tomb (UNESCO World Heritage Site), built between 1565-1572:
- Built by Hamida Banu Begum, for her husband Humayun, nine years after his death.
- First example of Mughal architecture and the first garden-tomb in the Indian subcontinent.
- Employs red sandstone and Persian architectural elements, setting the stage for the Taj Mahal.
- The Lahore Fort (Shahi Qila) complex, Pakistan, circa 1580:
- Citadel complex started by Akbar.
- Located in the walled city of Lahore, Punjab.
- Contains 21 notable monuments.
- Built mainly in the 17th century, at the height of the Mughal empire.
- Old Delhi Red Fort:
- Seat of the Mughal Empire.
- Features massive red sandstone walls, which were used for defensive purposes.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the fundamental concepts, beliefs, and history of Hinduism. This quiz covers key figures like Brahma, the significance of dharma, and the origins of Hinduism as Santana Dharma. Explore the role of deities, the caste system, and the connections to other religions such as Buddhism and Jainism.
