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Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of the endocardial cushions during heart development?
What is the primary role of the endocardial cushions during heart development?
What happens to the foramen primum during the development of the heart?
What happens to the foramen primum during the development of the heart?
Which structure allows one-way shunting of blood from the right to the left atrium?
Which structure allows one-way shunting of blood from the right to the left atrium?
What is the fate of the interventricular foramen by the end of the seventh week of development?
What is the fate of the interventricular foramen by the end of the seventh week of development?
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What is the function of the aorticopulmonary septum during heart development?
What is the function of the aorticopulmonary septum during heart development?
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What does the right coronary artery provide to the heart?
What does the right coronary artery provide to the heart?
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Where does the left coronary artery arise from?
Where does the left coronary artery arise from?
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Which artery is responsible for the posterior interventricular branch dominance?
Which artery is responsible for the posterior interventricular branch dominance?
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Which branch supplies the walls of the ventricles?
Which branch supplies the walls of the ventricles?
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What vein receives the great cardiac vein?
What vein receives the great cardiac vein?
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What is the function of the great cardiac vein?
What is the function of the great cardiac vein?
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Which of the following veins drains the posterior interventricular artery?
Which of the following veins drains the posterior interventricular artery?
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What is noted about the flow of blood in paired arteries and veins?
What is noted about the flow of blood in paired arteries and veins?
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What is a common symptom of larger ventricular septal defects (VSDs)?
What is a common symptom of larger ventricular septal defects (VSDs)?
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What process involves the development of new blood vessels from mesodermal cells?
What process involves the development of new blood vessels from mesodermal cells?
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What complication can result from untreated large patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)?
What complication can result from untreated large patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)?
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Which type of blood vessel carries poorly oxygenated blood from the umbilical vesicle to the embryo?
Which type of blood vessel carries poorly oxygenated blood from the umbilical vesicle to the embryo?
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Which heart defect is characterized by incomplete closure of the ventricular septum?
Which heart defect is characterized by incomplete closure of the ventricular septum?
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What is a notable clinical sign of coarctation of the aorta?
What is a notable clinical sign of coarctation of the aorta?
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What structures of the embryo develop from mesenchyme surrounding the vascular channels?
What structures of the embryo develop from mesenchyme surrounding the vascular channels?
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What is the primary function of angiogenesis?
What is the primary function of angiogenesis?
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What aspect primarily differentiates preductal coarctation from postductal coarctation?
What aspect primarily differentiates preductal coarctation from postductal coarctation?
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What is a common consequence of larger VSDs over time?
What is a common consequence of larger VSDs over time?
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At what gestational age does the heart and great vessels begin to form in the embryo?
At what gestational age does the heart and great vessels begin to form in the embryo?
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Which structure fuses to form a network of channels as part of vasculogenesis?
Which structure fuses to form a network of channels as part of vasculogenesis?
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What defect can cause significant pressure differences between the aorta and pulmonary trunk?
What defect can cause significant pressure differences between the aorta and pulmonary trunk?
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What forms the pericardial cavity in the embryo?
What forms the pericardial cavity in the embryo?
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Which of the following is NOT considered a symptom of larger VSDs?
Which of the following is NOT considered a symptom of larger VSDs?
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Which structure carries well-oxygenated blood from the chorion to the fetus?
Which structure carries well-oxygenated blood from the chorion to the fetus?
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What is the primary function of L-type Ca+2 voltage-gated channels (VGC)?
What is the primary function of L-type Ca+2 voltage-gated channels (VGC)?
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Which statement accurately describes the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
Which statement accurately describes the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
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What happens to the myosin head during the power stroke?
What happens to the myosin head during the power stroke?
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What triggers the relaxation of the sarcomere after contraction?
What triggers the relaxation of the sarcomere after contraction?
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How does tropomyosin affect muscle contraction?
How does tropomyosin affect muscle contraction?
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What is the consequence of ATP binding to a myosin head?
What is the consequence of ATP binding to a myosin head?
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What role do T-tubules play in excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle?
What role do T-tubules play in excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle?
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Which factor primarily maintains the cyclic reactions of muscle contraction?
Which factor primarily maintains the cyclic reactions of muscle contraction?
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What characteristic differentiates the action potential of atrial myocytes from that of ventricular myocytes?
What characteristic differentiates the action potential of atrial myocytes from that of ventricular myocytes?
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What is the primary role of automatic cells in the heart?
What is the primary role of automatic cells in the heart?
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In phase 4 of automatic cell action potentials, what unusual property do the ion channels exhibit?
In phase 4 of automatic cell action potentials, what unusual property do the ion channels exhibit?
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What triggers the depolarization phase (phase 0) in automatic cells?
What triggers the depolarization phase (phase 0) in automatic cells?
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How does potassium efflux during phase 3 affect the membrane potential?
How does potassium efflux during phase 3 affect the membrane potential?
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What happens to the funny current during the phases of automatic cell action potentials?
What happens to the funny current during the phases of automatic cell action potentials?
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What is the significance of the term 'funny current' in the context of cardiac cells?
What is the significance of the term 'funny current' in the context of cardiac cells?
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What influence do automatic cells have on heart rate?
What influence do automatic cells have on heart rate?
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What happens to calcium channels during the depolarization phase of automatic cells?
What happens to calcium channels during the depolarization phase of automatic cells?
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Which of the following is true about the resting membrane potential of atrial myocytes?
Which of the following is true about the resting membrane potential of atrial myocytes?
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Study Notes
Cardiovascular Embryology Study Notes
- Cardiovascular embryology is the study of the development of the heart and blood vessels in embryos.
- Learning outcomes include correlating the anatomical features of cardiac structures to their function in the embryo.
- This includes the endocardium, myocardium, Purkinje fibers, atrioventricular valves, semilunar valves, chordae tendinae, fibrous skeleton, and fibrous and visceral pericardium.
- Students need to understand the distribution of coronary arteries, veins, and sinuses, such as the right coronary artery, SA-nodal artery, right marginal artery, posterior interventricular artery; and the left coronary artery, circumflex artery, left marginal artery, the coronary sinus, and great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein.
- The nervous innervation of the heart and function of subcellular structures (gap junctions, desmosomes, and fascia adherens) should also be understood.
- The surface anatomy of the precordium relating to cardiac structures - such as cardiac apex, base of the heart, mitral valve, tricuspid valve, aortic valve, pulmonic valve, right ventricle, and right atrium - should also be covered.
- Knowledge of vasculogenesis and angiogenesis in the embryo, and how lateral, cephalic, and cardiac bending relates to cardiac structure development, is also essential. This also includes development of the truncus arteriosus, bulbus cordis, sinus venosus, umbilical vessels, vitelline vessels, and cardinal veins.
- Students should know the contribution of endocardial cushions and neural crest cells to septal structures, valves, and outflow structures in the embryonic heart.
- Anatomy of fetal shunts and their changes after parturition, and congenital cardiac defects like atrial septal defects, ventricular septal defects, coarctation of the aorta, and PDA should be studied.
- A clinical case study of a mother with a 4-month-old child showing a systolic murmur over the precordium, is presented. This case requires students to consider feeding options and whether supplements impact a child's health early in development.
Pre-Assessment Questions
- If a stethoscope is placed at the 2nd right intercostal space at the sternal border, which cardiac structure would be heard? (Aortic valve)
- Which structure brings oxygenated blood to the embryonic heart? (Umbilical vein)
- What is the papillary muscle attached to? (Chordae tendinae of an atrioventricular valve)
Mediastinum
- The mediastinum divides the thorax into two lateral pleural cavities
- It is located between the mediastinal pleura
- It is posterior to the sternum
- It is anterior to the vertebrae
- It is superior to the diaphragm
Heart
- The heart and pericardial sac are positioned approximately 2/3rds to the left and 1/3rd to the right of the middle mediastinum.
- The upper border is at the 3rd right costal cartilage, 1 cm from the sternum.
- The lower border is at the 2nd left costal cartilage,2.5 cm from the left sternal line.
- The apex is roughly 9cm left of the midsternal line
Heart - Anatomical Views (Anterior and Posterior)
- Diagrams and labels for the major blood vessels and chambers of the heart are presented. This includes, but is not limited to the brachiocephalic trunk, superior vena cava, right pulmonary artery, ascending aorta, pulmonary trunk, right pulmonary veins, right atrium, right coronary artery, etc...
Heart - Open (Anterior/Posterior View)
- Diagrams and labels for the major heart valves and chamber structures are shown, including but not limited to the aortic valve, pulmonary valve, mitral valve, tricuspid valve, left ventricle, and right ventricle, etc.
Auscultatory Locations- Heart
- Auscultatory sites for the different heart valves are marked as parts of the 12 lead ECG system
- Mitral valve (apex): 5th intercostal space at the midclavicular line
- Tricuspid valve: lower left sternal border in the 4th/5th intercostal space
- Aortic valve: 2nd right intercostal space near the right sternal border
- Pulmonic valve: 2nd left intercostal space near the left sternal border
Pericardium & Epicardium
- The pericardium is the fibrous membrane that encloses the heart and the roots of the great vessels.
- It anchors, protects, and prevents overfilling of the heart.
- Two layers: fibrous (tough, inelastic CT) and serous (parietal and visceral, the visceral layer is also called epicardium).
- The fibrous pericardium is continuous with the central tendon of the diaphragm (pericardiophrenic ligament).
Chamber Walls
- Each heart chamber wall has three layers, from superficial to deep:
- Endocardium (thin inner layer with endothelial and connective tissue)
- Myocardium (thick middle layer of cardiac muscle)
- Epicardium (thin outer layer formed by visceral pericardium)
Myocardium Components
- Cardiomyocytes make up the myocardium.
- Striated, uninuclear, generally with one or two branches.
- Purkinje fibers specialized cardiac muscle fibers are essential for electrical impulse conduction.
- Glycogen-filled, large diameter fibres, gap junctions, and pale-staining.
- Papillary muscles located in the ventricles; connected to the atrioventricular (AV) valves.
- Pectinate muscles are found in the walls of the atria, particularly in the right atrium.
- Trabeculae carneae - irregular, mesh-like ridges and muscular walls of the ventricles.
Histology-Myocardium
- Intercalated disks, containing desmosomes and gap junctions between cardiomyocytes, are essential to cardiac function.
Histology - Purkinje Fibers
- Microscopic images of Purkinje fibers, showing their unique structural characteristics
Histology-Valve
- Microscopic structures of the heart valves. The layers of the valve are shown in the images.
Cardiac Muscle Fibers
- Cardiac muscle cells are striated, short, branched, and interconnected and have one nucleus.
- Numerous, large mitochondria.
- Intercalated discs with many gap junctions essential for coordinated function.
Fibrous Skeleton
- The fibrous skeleton is an interconnected framework of dense connective tissue providing support and anchoring for cardiac muscle and valves.
- This framework also helps maintain valve function, and provides electrical insulation between the atrial and ventricular muscles.
Left vs. Right Sides- Heart
- Differences in myocardial wall thickness between the left and right sides
- Different numbers and arrangements of heart valve leaflets and papillary muscles between the two sides
- The locations of the cardiac conduction system elements (SA and AV nodes) are different between the two sides.
Features of the Heart
- Interatrial septum: separating the right and left atria, often includes the fossa ovalis.
- Interventricular septum: separating the right and left ventricles.
- Auricles: increasing capacity of the atria
- Description of the interventricular septum's divisions
Conduction System- SA Node
- Pacemaker of the heart, located near the opening of the superior vena cava (SVC) in the right atrium (RA).
- Sends 70 impulses per minute and myogenic spread
- Innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems.
Conduction System- AV Node
- Electrical junction between the atria and ventricles.
- Contains specialized cells that delay the electrical signal.
- Important in preventing atrial and ventricular contractions from occurring simultaneously.
Conduction System
- The pathway from automatic cells through the ventricles
- Subendocardial branches originating from the AV bundle and traveling through the walls of the ventricles
Innervation of the Heart
- The heart's innervation from the cardiac plexus with both sympathetic and parasympathetic components and visceral afferent fibers.
- The cardiac plexus's location on the surface of the heart
- The phrenic nerve and its location in the pericardium
Vasculature of the Heart
- Description of the coronary arteries (right and left) that supply the myocardium.
- How coronary arteries arise from the aortic sinuses
- Locations and branches of the coronary arteries
- What the coronary sinus collects, and how blood from the coronary arteries is returned
- How some subendothelial tissue receives oxygen through diffusion
Coronary Arteries
- Description of the right and left coronary arteries.
- Their branches and the areas they supply, and how they anastomose.
Right Coronary Artery
- Origin, course, distribution, and anastomoses of its branches (SA nodal, marginal, posterior interventricular branch).
Left Coronary Artery
- Origin, course, distribution, and anastomosis of its branches (anterior interventricular, circumflex, and marginal).
Dominance
- Which coronary artery supplies the posterior interventricular branch.
- Coronary artery dominance is determined based on the artery giving rise to the posterior interventricular branch.
Cardiac Veins
- Cardiac veins empty into the coronary sinus or directly into the right atrium,
- The coronary sinus receives blood from numerous small cardiac veins
- The great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, small cardiac vein, and left posterior ventricular vein are associated with the coronary sinus
- These veins are embedded in fat.
Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis
- Development of new blood vessels from different origins and the connection of blood vessels and their tissues.
- Description of the process of vasculogenesis (formation of new blood vessels) and related process angiogenesis in the embryo.
- The process of blood vessel creation and development to form the circulatory system.
Development of the Embryonic Vessels
- The vitelline vein carries poorly oxygenated blood from the umbilical vesicle.
- The umbilical vein carries well-oxygenated blood from the placenta to the embryo.
- The common cardinal veins carry poorly oxygenated blood from the embryo's body.
- The dorsal aorta carries blood to the embryo.
- The umbilical arteries return blood to the placenta
Lateral Folding
- Folding brings the heart into the anterior part of the chest cavity
- Intra-embryonic coelom is near the heart tube
- The paired heart tubes are connected to the extraembryonic vessels.
Cranial Folding
The heart tube is positioned more ventrally and caudally The processes described include intraembryonic coelom near the heart tube - pericardial cavity, pleural cavity, and peritoneal cavity The paired heart tubes are connected to the extraembryonic vessels.
Development of the Heart
- Formation of the early heart and associated vessels.
- Formation of the cardiogenic area
- Paired longitudinal endocardial tubes that fuse in the 3rd week
Establishment of the Heart
- Primary and Secondary Heart Fields: the regions that form the heart in the embryo.
- Neural Crest Cells: contributing to the cardiac outflow tract and aorticopulmonary septum.
Laterality
- The right side of the heart has cells contributing to the left-side cardiovascular structures.
- The left side also contributes to the right-side cardiovascular structures.
- Spilling of the blood system and relationship to laterality
Cardiac Loop
- Rotation that brings the heart into a C-shaped form
- Arrangement of great and major vessels is also modified
- This bending generates the cardiac loop by day 28.
Endocardial Cushions
- Endocardial cushions formed in the Atrioventricular canal.
- Cushions are invaded by mesenchymal cells during the 5th week.
- The cushions fuse and divide the AV canal into right and left canals
- These cushions function as valves, play a role in septal formation and become part of the atrioventricular valves.
Development of Partitioning (Atria)
- Key events that occur during the development of the atrial septum, involving the septum primum and foramen primum.
- Growth of septum primum,
- Formation of the foramen secundum and the development of the septum secundum.
- The one-way shunt of blood from the right to the left atrium (via the foramen ovale), dependent on pressures differences.
Atrial Septum
- The remnant of the septum primum is now called the valve of the oval foramen
- Blood flows from the right atrium to the left atrium through the foramen ovale by pushing through the septum primum.
Ventricular Partitioning
- The ridge of the interventricular septum grows towards the endocardial cushions.
- A crescent-shaped interventricular foramen that forms.
- The interventricular septum closes by week 7.
Ventricular Outflow
- Aorticopulmonary septum descend into the developing heart.
- The aorticopulmonary septum separates the outflow tracts into the aorta and pulmonary artery separately
- Spiralization of the septum positions the aorta and pulmonary artery correctly in the chest
The Venous System
- Vitelline veins: used for drainage, enter into the sinus venosus, form hepatic portal system, and eventually disappear (except the right)
- Umbilical vein: carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the embryo, through the ductus venosus to the IVC.
- Posterior cardinal veins & anterior cardinal veins: carry deoxygenated blood from body to heart, and eventually form the IVC, and SVC.
Fetal Circulation
- Ductus arteriosus: blood from the pulmonary trunk to the aorta
- Foramen ovale: blood from the right atrium to the left atrium
- Ductus venosus: Bypasses liver, fetal blood flows into the IVC.
Circulation After Birth
- The umbilical arteries close to separate the fetal circulatory system from the placenta.
- The umbilical vein and ductus venosus close to become the ligamentum teres, and ligamentum venosum. The foramen ovale closes to become the fossa ovalis.
- The ductus arteriosus closes to become the ligamentum arteriosum.
Congenital Heart Disease-Overview
- Incidence per million live births of common cardiovascular birth defects
- Congenital heart malformations (like ventricular septal defect, atrial septal defect, etc.)
Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)
- The defect in the atrial septum and clinical features.
Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)
- Holes in the membranous part of the interventricular septum.
- The defect in the ventricular septum and clinical features.
Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)
- Failure of the ductus arteriosus to close after birth.
- Increased pressure differences in the aorta and pulmonary trunk.
Coarctation of Aorta
- Narrowing of the aorta, typically distal to the origin of the left subclavian artery.
- Clinical features of hypertension in the upper limbs and hypotension in the lower limbs.
Factors Leading to Embryological Defects
- Interference with left-right determination of the body axis (e.g., dextrocardia).
- Improper migration of precursor cells (e.g., neural crest cells).
- Improper regression of embryonic structures (e.g., patent ductus arteriosus )
Class Discussion
- Presents a clinical case scenario involving a mother who has concerns with feeding options and supplements.
- The mother has a child with a heart murmur which needs further investigation.
References
- The study materials list relevant sources for further study and research.
BMS 200-Physiology of the Cardiac Cycle
- Explains the features of the Wigger diagram illustrating the pressures and volume changes in the chambers of the heart.
- Explains how passive filling, atrial contraction, and length of diastole contribute to ventricular filling.
- Defines the parameters of cardiac output (End-diastolic volume, end-systolic volume, stroke volume, ejection fraction, heart rate).
- Explains the parameters that affect stroke volume (contractility, preload, afterload).
Questions
- Which ventricle pumps more blood/minute? (Left ventricle pumps more blood per minute)
- Explanations about the pressures, wall thickness and vascular connections of both ventricles
Force of Contraction
- Description of factors that increase the inotropy of the heart.
- These include increased sympathetic nervous system stimulation, increased heart rate, and other factors increasing SNS effectiveness.
Factors affecting Strength of Contraction
- Positive inotropic agents (e.g., hormones) increase the force of contraction; negative inotropic agents decrease it.
- Increasing factors like epinephrine and drugs (e.g., digitalis).
- Decreasing factors like other medications
Factors influencing Strength of Contraction (Skeletal Muscle)
- Describes how better actin-myosin overlap leads to increased force developments in skeletal muscle
Review - ECG Timing
- Describes how the ECG waves and intervals correspond to the excitation along the heart's conduction pathway.
The Wiggers Diagram
- The Wiggers diagram contains information about pressures and volumes in the left ventricle, aorta , and left atrium. This includes the ECG, Phonocardiogram etc.
The Wiggers Diagram-Pressures
- Examining the atrial pressure tracing (the lower dashed line).
- Understanding the factors causing the a, c, and v waves, and x and y descents.
Cardiac Veins
- Review of the cardiac veins, and how they function, to drain blood from the heart wall and return it to the heart.
Cardiac Calculations and Parameters
- Define End-Diastolic Volume (EDV) and End-Systolic Volume (ESV)
- Define Stroke Volume (SV), Cardiac Output (CO), and Ejection Fraction (EF)
- Explain how to calculate each parameter from the provided data
Cardiac Calculations and Parameters
- How contractility, preload, and afterload affect stroke volume.
- Explain the major factors that determine the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues and why this is essential and useful
- Ejection fraction is often used as an estimate of heart function in heart failure cases.
The Pressure-Volume Loop of the Ventricle
- Used to measure parameters like total workload, contractility, compliance, and basic hemodynamic parameters.
- Definition of systolic and diastolic phases and how they reflect pressure and volume changes.
The Ventricular Pressure-Volume Loop
- How the ventricular pressure-volume loop is read in order (A->D).
- Understanding the key elements (preload - EDV, inotropy - ESPVR, afterload, and cardiac workload calculated from the total area)
The Ventricular Pressure-Volume Loop
- Discusses workload and its relationship to preload. Also talks about how the heart's energy efficiency is affected by the work it performs.
Automatic Cell Action Potentials
- Description of the phases of the action potentials, and how the phases differ from that of myocardial cells
- Discusses factors like increased K+ conductance causing hyperpolarization and decreased Ca2+ influx slowing the rate of depolarization.
- How parasympathetic pathways affect voltage-gated channels.
Key Features of Automatic Cells
- Summary of the key differences in the phases, and how automatic cells can spontaneously generate action potentials.
- Details on how the SA and AV nodes' structures assist in the conduction system.
Pacemakers and Automaticity 3
- Discusses the intrinsic ability of specialized cardiac cells to generate action potentials, including the heart's primary pacemaker cell (SA node), as well as other pacemaker cells like the the AV node and Purkinje fibers.
- How heart rate impacts how fast these cells depolarize.
- What the consequences of these pacemaker cells failing would be.
Locations of Automatic Cells
- Description of the sinoatrial node (SA node) and atrioventricular node (AV node), which serve as the primary and reserve pacemakers (respectively) for the heart.
- Location of these automatic cells within the hearts and the differences in rates of depolarization
The Conduction System
- Networks are essential for coordinated cardiac function to synchronize depolarization for efficient contraction and circulation of blood.
- The sinoatrial node (SA node), atrioventricular node (AV node), Bundles of His, and Purkinje fibers are all parts of the conduction system.
- Discussion about how the AV node delays/slows down conductions for efficient fill of ventricles.
The Conduction Pathway Summary
- Summarizes the pathway of the action potential and contraction in the heart, from impulse generation/SA node → Atrial Contraction → AV node delay → Bundle of His into the ventricles → Purkinje Fibers
The Conduction System- No Muscle
- The fibrous skeleton of the heart
- Components(like the AV node and bundle of His) which acts as critical junctions
- Divisions of the right bundle branch (anterior and posterior)
ECGs-An Introduction-
- ECGs are essential for initial heart evaluation.
- They can help determine heart size, arrhythmias, electrolyte and cardiac ischemia issues.
- Some useful findings include pericarditis and pulmonary emboli.
- ECGs are recordings of the external, measured electrical potentials of cardiac contraction.
- They do not directly measure intracellular activity.
A Standard 12-lead ECG
- Standard 12-lead ECG placement and format.
- A graphical display of the 12-lead ECG
ECG Generalities
- ECGs reflect electrical differences across the heart.
- The baseline reflects overall depolarization and repolarization of all cardiac tissue.
- ECGs may have waves and intervals when there are electrical differences in different locations of the heart.
ECG Generalities
- The "height" of a wave on the ECG tracing corresponds to the size of the electrical potential difference.
Placement of ECG Leads
- Placement of ECG leads to obtain a 3-dimensional view of the electrical activity.
- Details on the coronal and cross-sectional views and lead placements on the chest.
What Does the ECG Measure?
- Describes the units used, (mV) (or millivolts) and (seconds).
- Describes the measurements, (voltage) (or millivolts) and (time)
- Discusses the small and large boxes shown on an ECG tracing, and what they represent in terms of time, and voltage (or millivolts).
What is a Wave vs. an Interval?
- Describes the differences between waves and intervals on electrocardiograms (ECG).
- Waves are deflections from the baseline, while intervals are the spaces in between waves. The different segments and intervals are named and described as wave forms
- ECG waveform features of P, QRS, and T waves and intervals (P-R, QRS, QT) are explained
ECG Timing
- The discussion explains how the ECG waves and intervals correspond to the heart's different pathways, and how they relate to the electrical events occurring in the heart to generate proper cardiac muscle contraction.
P-QRS-T
- Explains the significance of the different components of the ECG tracing : (P waves, PR intervals, QRS complexes, ST segment, T waves, etc.).
- Timing of each component
Summary of Correspondence
- Summary of the ECG waves (P-wave, PR interval, QRS complex, ST segment, T-wave, and QT interval) and their correspondence to different phases of the cardiac cycle.
- Describes how these correspond to the different phases of the cardiac cycle.
How an ECG tracing Corresponds to Atrial and Ventricular Action Potentials
- Describes the correspondence of the electrical events on the ECG tracing to atrial and ventricular action potentials
Atrial Action Potential
- Description of the P-wave, PR Interval, QRS Complex, T Wave, QT Interval and how they correspond to different phases of the cardiac cycle.
Cardiac Metabolism
- Cardiac myocytes have a lot of mitochondria, and depend mostly on oxidative metabolism and use of circulating fats.
- The myocytes require continuous blood flow to adequately produce and use ATP.
Introduction to Pathological Terms
- Description of heart failure, cardiac arrest (sudden stoppage of the heart's pumping. . . usually involves ventricular tachycardias and ventricular fibrillation), angina (chest pain due to reduced blood flow), and tachyarrythmias.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the intricate processes of heart development, focusing on structures like endocardial cushions and the roles of various arteries and veins. This quiz covers critical concepts such as the fate of the foramen primum and the function of the aorticopulmonary septum during embryogenesis. Perfect for medical students and anyone interested in developmental biology.
