Harappan Civilisation and Indus Valley

Steatite

Archaeological evidence

Large-scale burning and abandonment of settlements

<p>Some of the areas occupied by the Early Harappan cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Animal motifs</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>43 settlements on new sites</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A wide range of plant and animal products, including fish</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They help reconstruct dietary practices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They indicate the domestication of certain animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Finds of grain, representations on seals and terracotta sculpture, and terracotta models of the plough.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that irrigation was probably required for agriculture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The development of urban centres.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was walled and physically separated from the Lower Town.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The use of standardized bricks and the restricted building activity within the city.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was carefully planned.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It allowed for efficient drainage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and rarely found in smaller settlements</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was almost exclusively devoted to craft production</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The variety of materials used, including stones, metals, shell, faience, and terracotta</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Beading was made by moulding out of a paste made with steatite powder, which permitted making a variety of shapes</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nageshwar and Balakot were centres of production for shell objects, which were taken to other settlements</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Raw material, tools, unfinished objects, rejects and waste material</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because it suggests that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also undertaken in large cities</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Procuring materials from outside the alluvial plain, such as stone, timber, and metal</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It can be inferred that literacy was widespread.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that there was a central authority or organization that implemented complex decisions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The lower denominations were binary, while the higher denominations were decimal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that the weights were used for a specific purpose, such as trading.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that the Harappans had a system of trade and commerce.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The theory that there was a single state with a central authority.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They disappeared.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A rural way of life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was not an alphabetical script.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It was written from right to left.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Procuring materials for craft production, specifically shell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that the Harappans exchanged goods with Oman, and possibly obtained copper from there.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They suggest that the Harappans had long-distance contacts with these regions, and possibly traded goods with them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They suggest that the Harappans were seafarers and had a maritime trade network.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They ensured that the goods had not been tampered with during transportation and conveyed the identity of the sender.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It probably contained the name and title of the owner, and possibly conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that the inhabitants of this region may have supplied copper to the Harappans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They were sent to procure raw materials, such as copper, and establish communication with local communities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They suggest that the Harappans had contact with local communities in these areas and may have exchanged goods with them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that the Harappans exchanged goods with Oman, possibly exchanging the contents of these vessels for Omani copper.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Harappan state</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The archaeology of the Early Historic (c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and later periods</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because he thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The discovery of seals at Harappa by archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the early decades of the twentieth century, in layers that were definitely much older than Early Historic levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It marked a major change in Indian archaeology, making India three thousand years older than previously thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because the Harappan civilisation collapsed, leading to the decline and abandonment of cities</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It revealed that the Harappan civilisation was contemporaneous with Mesopotamia</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because they did not know what to make of the strange artefacts that occasionally surfaced, and they did not have a written record of the civilisation</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They preferred to use the written word (texts and inscriptions) as a guide to investigations, which limited their understanding of the Harappan civilisation</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It indicated the decline of a unified state and the emergence of localised systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Marshall excavated along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This approach led to the loss of valuable information about the context of the finds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Wheeler introduced the importance of following the stratigraphy of the mound during excavations. His military background brought a sense of precision to the practice of archaeology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The discovery of Harappan sites in India has expanded our understanding of the Harappan civilization and has led to a renewed interest in the field of archaeology. It has also spurred international collaborations and the adoption of modern scientific techniques.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The new issues include obtaining a cultural sequence, understanding the logic behind the location of specific sites, and analyzing the functions of artefacts. These issues are being addressed through modern scientific techniques, international collaborations, and surface explorations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The partition of the subcontinent led to the major Harappan sites being located in Pakistani territory, prompting Indian archaeologists to search for new sites in India. Efforts have included extensive surveys in Kutch, Punjab, and Haryana, leading to the discovery of new sites such as Kalibangan, Lothal, and Dholavira.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The international collaboration has brought together specialists from the subcontinent and abroad to work together at Harappan sites, adopting modern scientific techniques such as surface exploration, detailed analysis of artefacts, and recovery of plant and animal remains.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Privacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Used by passers-by</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Watertight construction using gypsum mortar and bricks on edge</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ritual baths</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Burials</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Graves containing pottery and ornaments</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Indication of social difference</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>In pits, sometimes lined with bricks</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Artefacts not of daily use or made from rare materials</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The primary challenge is the lack of written records, and archaeologists overcome it by relying on material evidence such as pottery, tools, and ornaments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Stone, burnt clay, and metal are most likely to survive, and they are significant because they provide valuable information about Harappan life and culture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Archaeologists classify artefacts according to material and function to better understand their significance and usage, and this classification helps to identify the purpose and context of the artefacts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The artefacts found suggest that Harappan households were concerned with daily activities such as cooking, cleaning, and beautification, and this reveals a glimpse into their daily lives and routines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Archaeologists believe that valuable artefacts found intact were either lost or hoarded because they were not typical household items, and this suggests that the Harappans valued and treasured these items.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The classification of artefacts according to function allows archaeologists to understand the purpose and significance of the artefacts, and this reveals a deeper understanding of Harappan culture and daily life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To distinguish it from the Early Harappan and Late Harappan cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a major development in Harappan archaeology and marks the beginning of the study of the Harappan civilisation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To try and understand what ancient artefacts were used for.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It led to the destruction of many of the ancient structures at the site.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It sometimes carries Harappan motifs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>BP stands for Before Present, BCE stands for Before Common Era, and CE stands for the Common Era.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They were built at a height and were often fortified.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They were objects kept carefully by people, often inside containers such as pots, and were sometimes reused by metalworkers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are part of the major periods in Early Indian Archaeology, along with the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Harappan civilisation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The discovery of skeletons at Mohenjodaro was significant because it suggested a massacre, which R.E.M. Wheeler interpreted as evidence of a deliberate and large-scale destruction of the city by the Aryans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The main drainage channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The sumps were used for cleaning, and they were provided at intervals in very long drainage channels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The drains at Lothal were made of burnt bricks, whereas the houses were built of mud bricks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The discovery of a skull and bones in Deadman Lane was significant because it suggested that the lane was named after the remains found there.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>R.E.M. Wheeler's theory was that the civilization was destroyed by the Aryans, citing the Rigveda's mention of pur and Indra as the fort-destroyer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>George Dales demonstrated that the skeletons found at Mohenjodaro did not belong to the same period, and therefore did not support Wheeler's theory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The discovery of sixteen skeletons at Mohenjodaro suggested a massacre, which was later questioned by George Dales.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The excavation of Harappa revealed a highly evolved civilization of non-Aryan type, which suggested that the destruction of the civilization was likely due to deliberate and large-scale destruction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The discovery of ornaments with skeletons at Mohenjodaro suggested that the individuals were buried with their personal belongings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The presence of 'sterile layers' in the archaeological sites indicated abandonment or desertion of the site.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Wheeler was amazed by the tall mounds of the ancient site and was eager to start excavations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Saddle querns were used for grinding cereals and possibly for pounding herbs and spices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study of layers in archaeology helps to identify occupational debris and abandonment patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The use of present-day analogies helps archaeologists understand the possible uses of ancient artefacts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The drainage system in Harappan cities was highly advanced and well-planned.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Shamans claimed to have magical and healing powers, and could communicate with the other world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The discovery of artefacts made of stone, metal, and terracotta suggests that the Harappans had a well-developed material culture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study of artefacts found in layers provides information about the cultural sequence of a site.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The formation of archaeological sites is a result of the production, use, and discarding of materials and structures over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Indirect evidence is crucial in archaeological interpretations, especially when direct evidence is unavailable. In the case of Harappan clothing, indirect evidence from depictions in sculpture helps archaeologists understand the clothing worn by the Harappans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Archaeologists develop frames of reference by considering the cultural sequence and comparisons with other finds. These frames are essential in understanding ancient cultures as they provide context to artefacts and help in their interpretation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Challenges in reconstructing religious practices include the speculative nature of interpretations and the risk of imposing modern assumptions on ancient practices. Archaeologists address these challenges by considering multiple lines of evidence and avoiding assumptions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The 'proto-Shiva' seals are significant in understanding Harappan religion, but their interpretation is limited by the lack of direct evidence and the risk of imposing modern assumptions. The depiction of Rudra in the Rigveda differs from the 'proto-Shiva' seals, highlighting the complexities of interpretation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Archaeologists have made significant progress in understanding the Harappan economy, social differences, and how the civilization functioned. However, many questions remain unanswered, including the function of the Great Bath, the spread of literacy, and the role of women in Harappan society.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Archaeologists move from the known to the unknown by using analogies from more recent cultures to understand ancient practices. However, this approach is limited by the risk of imposing modern assumptions and overlooking the unique characteristics of ancient societies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bilingual inscriptions could provide valuable insights into the languages spoken by the Harappans. Deciphering the Harappan script could reveal new information about the civilization, but the implications of this discovery are still speculative.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Challenges in reconstructing social differences include the lack of direct evidence and the risk of imposing modern assumptions. Archaeologists address these challenges by considering multiple lines of evidence and avoiding assumptions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The depiction of plants and animals on Harappan seals is significant in understanding Harappan religion. These depictions may indicate nature worship or the importance of certain animals in Harappan mythology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The limitations of using analogies from more recent cultures include the risk of imposing modern assumptions and overlooking the unique characteristics of ancient societies. Archaeologists address these limitations by considering multiple lines of evidence and avoiding assumptions.</p> Signup and view all the answers