Nutrition week 2

• Animals and humans require essential nutrients to maintain their overall health.
• Humans have approximately 10,000 taste buds.
• Dogs have approximately 1,700 taste buds.
• Cats have approximately 500 taste buds.
• The six essential nutrients are:
  • Carbohydrates
  • Fats
  • Proteins
  • Minerals
  • Vitamins
  • Water

Carbohydrates

• Simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose) are monosaccharides.
  • Glucose is the primary energy source.
• Two monosaccharides linked together, such as lactose and sucrose, are disaccharides.
• Oligosaccharides have 3-10 monosaccharides, are difficult to digest, cause GI upset and flatulence, but have a prebiotic effect.
• Polysaccharides have many thousands of mono units (cellulose and starch).
  • Cereal grains like corn, wheat, barley, and rice are polysaccharides.
• Carbohydrates provide energy via conversion into simple sugars (glucose) through the small intestine for the majority of body cells.
• Glucose is also required for the brain and nervous system.
• Excess glucose can be stored for later use.
• Complex carbohydrates need to be further broken down before being fully absorbed.
• Stored glucose is later released as glycogen.
• Glycogen can turn into fatty deposits in the body and contribute to obesity.

Glucose vs. Glycogen

• Glucose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide), while glycogen is a complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide).
• Glucose is an immediate energy source, while glycogen is for energy storage.
• Glucose circulates in the bloodstream.
• Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.
• Glucose has a single molecule structure.
• Glycogen is a branched chain of glucose units.
• Glucose is the body's primary energy source, while glycogen is the storage form of glucose that can be mobilized when needed.
• Digestible carbohydrates are mostly composed of monosaccharides (simple sugars) and disaccharides (double sugars).
• Indigestible carbohydrates are composed of polysaccharides.
  • Starch is an insoluble carbohydrate that improves and can be acted on by enzymes after cooking.
  • Cellulose is an insoluble carbohydrate that cannot be acted on by enzymes and acts as dietary fiber.
• Carbohydrates provide an important energy source for the central nervous system and heart.
• Carbohydrates helps maintains blood glucose levels and manage diabetes.
• If enough carbs are provided, protein is spared from being used as energy.
• Carbohydrates are converted to glucose and supply body heat.
• Carbohydrates are used during growth, gestation, and lactation to supply extra energy needed, making them conditionally essential nutrients during these times.
• Cats have a unique metabolism that limits their ability to use large amounts of carbs because they are strict carnivores.
• Diets with too much carb (>40% dry matter) cause diarrhea, bloating, and flatulence in cats.
• Cats can maintain normal blood glucose levels on low carb, high protein diets.
• Fiber is derived from grains and plants.
• Fiber resists enzymes in the small intestine and ferments in the large intestine, regulating bacteria in the colon.
• Fiber is not always absorbed and exits the body.
• Fiber is not a required nutrient for dogs and cats but aids in digestion, keeps animals full longer, and helps to control glucose levels for those with diabetes.
• The most common form of carbohydrates in pet food is cereal grains.
• Grains need to be ground up or cooked for absorption and digestibility.
• Carbohydrates create the texture of kibble diets, making them shelf stable, easy to eat, and aiding in tartar build up.
• Common carbohydrate sources are:
  • Oats
  • Barley
  • Brown rice
  • Whole wheat
  • Whole corn
  • Potato
  • Millet

Water

• Water is essential for life.
• Bodies are approximately 70% water.
• A water loss of approximately 15% results in fatality.
• It's important to monitor water quality.
• Containments to consider are: salt, nitrates, nitrites, inorganic chemicals, and microbes.
• TDS "total dissolved solids" are measured in parts per million (ppm).
  • Less than 5000 ppm is acceptable.
  • Above 7000 ppm is unacceptable for livestock and poultry.
  • Less than 500 ppm is recommended for humans.
• Water functions:
  • Transports nutrients in and out of cells in the body
  • Aids in digestion and absorption of nutrients
  • Regulates body temperature
  • Improves cognitive function
  • Lubricates joints and cushions the brain and spinal cord
• Normal water loss from pets includes panting/breathing, urinations, and defecations.
• Water is replenished through eating and drinking.
• Dehydration can result if pets are not eating/drinking enough, are heavily exercised, are exposed to hot/humid climates, or have persistent episodes of vomiting and/or diarrhea
• The risks of dehydration include exasperated illness, electrolyte imbalances and increased risk of diseases like diabetes, liver failure, and renal failure.
• Cats tend to live in a chronic stage of dehydration.
• The three possible sources of water are: water in food, metabolic water, and drinking water.
• The average water content in dry kibble is as low as 7% and in canned food is as high as 84%.
• Metabolic processes produce 5-10% of water through oxidation of protein, fat, and carbohydrates.
• Birds and desert mammals rely on metabolic water.
• Voluntary drinking is the most significant water source.
• Dog will show thirst and drink when body water decreases by 4% or less.
• Cats will drink when they lose as much as 8% of body water.
• Signs of dehydration include: lethargy/listlessness, loss of appetite, decreased urinations, sunken eyes, prolonged skin tent, panting and dry gums/nose.
• Prevent dehydration by: offering fresh, clean water daily, offering multiple bowls and locations of water, using drinking fountains - especially for cats, allowing drinking from a dripping faucet-when applicable, adding canned food to diet, preparing bottled water/collapsible bowl while outside, checking weather prior to exercise and location of water bowl.
• Dogs and cats bodies consist of 70% water.
• Water loss of 10-15% can result in fatality in dogs and cats.
• To determine how much water is required, one can use the calculation to identify water intake goals (similar to their DER in kcal/day).
• 1. 6 x RER = water requirements for dogs.
• 2. 2 x RER = water requirements for cats.

Proteins

• Proteins are the essential building blocks for all tissues and organs of the body.
• Proteins are described as the backbone to cells because of their structural role in cell walls.
• Proteins are required for tissue growth, replenishment, and repair.
• They are required in the diet to provide a source of amino acids.
• Amino acids are needed to build, repair, and replace body proteins.
• Proteins are also the primary source of nitrogen for the synthesis of nonessential amino acids.
• Surplus protein is converted to glycogen.
• Amino acids link together in a long chain and then bundled into a 3D shape to make protein.
• There are hundreds of amino acids in the body, but only 21 amino acids are used in animal proteins.
• Proteins include: cartilage, tendons, and ligaments; the contracting element of muscles (actin and myosin); skin, hair, and nails (keratin); blood proteins (albumin, globulins, haemoglobin); enzymes; hormones; and antibodies.
• There are two groups of amino acids:
  • Essential Amino Acids (EAAs) – must be in diet.
  • Non-Essential Amino Acids – can be synthesized.
• EAAs vary by species.
• Dogs have 10 EAAS: Arginine, Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, and Valine.
• Cats have 11 EAAS: Arginine, Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine, and Taurine.
• Proteins are present in both animal meats and plants such as beans, etc.
• The quality of proteins varies, with higher values better used by the body.
  • Less is needed of a higher quality values to meet the EAA need.
• Cats have a much higher protein requirement than dogs.
• High quality protein provides all AAs in correct proportions.
• Low quality protein may lack sufficient quantities of 1 or more AA's.
• Digestibility affects quality as do with cooking times & temperature.
• Fiber content can affect quality (i.e., plant-based protein generally less digestible than animal based).
• The quality of protein is termed biologic value.
• The biologic value is the % of the absorbed protein retained
• The biologic value measures body's ability to convert absorbed amino acids into body issue.
• The higher the biologic value of a protein the less amount of that protein is needed in a diet to meet all the animal's EAA requirement.
• Proteins are part of every mammalian cell.
• Deficiencies of any EAAs can result in: poor growth, weight loss, dull coat condition, and impaired immunity.
• If total caloric intake exceeds bodily needs, surplus protein is stored as dietary energy.
• For protein to be stored as fat, the total caloric intake must exceed the body's energy needs.
• Protein itself doesn't automatically turn into fat unless an animal is eating more calories, than they burn.
• Protein sources in diets include; Beef, Chicken, Pork, Brewster's yeast, Casein, Corn gluten meal, Ducks, Eggs, Fish meal, Pea protein, Potato protein, Rice protein, Salmon, Soybeans, Tuna, Turkey, Wheat gluten, Venison, and Whey.
• Organ meats and animal byproducts are a normal part of our pet's diets as it’s a sustainable way to incorporate animal proteins in their diets
• Using byproducts in animal nutrition promotes sustainable practices by repurposing materials that would otherwise go to waste. It benefits producers through cost savings, supports environmental health, and ensures efficient use of global resources. This approach is a cornerstone of modern livestock farming and sustainability efforts.

Taurine

• Taurine cannot be synthesized in cats.
• Taurine is necessary for normal retinal function and myocardial function and present only in animal tissue.
• A diet containing high levels of plant products and cereal grains may not provide sufficient taurine, even if meat-based products are included in the diet.
• Requirements for cats consuming canned foods are substantially higher than that for cats consuming dry foods.
• The heat process used in canned foods can damage the protein.

Fats

• Fats functions are:
• Energy storage
• Insulators (protects from heat loss)
• Protective layer (around vital organs)
• Provides essential fatty acids (EFAs)
• Provides a carrier for fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E & K)
• Enhances palatability of foods
• Fats are solid at room temperature.
• Oils are liquid at room temperature.
• Two common types of lipids:
  • Triglycerides (simple lipids).
  • Lipoproteins (compound lipids).
• In diet, triglycerides are the most important fat.
  • Saturated (animal fat).
  • Monounsaturated.
  • Polyunsaturated.
• Lipoproteins
  • A combination of fats and proteins
  • Provides transport of fats through the bloodstream
  • Carries triglycerides and cholesterol - necessary for fat digestion and absorption
• Fat provides most concentrated form of energy of any nutrients (3 times carbohydrates).
• Digestibility is higher than proteins and carbs.
• Important if need to increase calorie density of a food
• Fat deficiency is characterized by improper wound healing, poor coat condition and scaly skin, which can lead to skin infections.
• Excess amounts of fat are stored as adipose tissue.
• Omega 3 & 6 fatty acids must be provided in diet as the body cannot synthesize them (omega 9's can)
• There are 3 EFAs:
  • Linoleic Acid (omega 6) - cat and dog
  • Alpha-linolenic Acid (omega 3) - cat and dog
  • Arachidonic Acid (omega 6) - cat only (dogs can synthesize from linoleic)
• Arachidonic Acid is only found in fats from animal sources.
• Sources of EFAs
  • Omega 6's
    • Linoleic vegetable oils like (corn, soybean & safflower) as well as pork fat & poultry. and a deficency causes poor hair coat, skin infections, wt. loss, decreased immunity etc.
  • Arachidonic found only in animal fats (cats can't be given vegetarian diet). Dogs can convert from Linoleic.
• Sources of EFAs
  • Omega 3 - fish & fish oils (menhaden but also salmon, sardines, tuna & anchovies)
  • This acids are used for retinal & nervous system development

Vitamins

• Vitamins are complex organic substances required in very small quantities to maintain growth, health and survival of living creatures.
• Vitamins don't supply energy but are essential in assisting the enzymes in releasing energy for nutrients.
• There are 13 major Vitamins - А, В COMPLEX (8 VITAMINS), C.D.F& K
• Fat Soluble (A, D, E & K)
• Stored in lipid deposits so daily intake not required.
• Over supplementation (because they can be stored) can result in hyper-vitaminosis or toxicity
• Water Soluble (B complex & C)
  • Not stored in body.
• Daily intake of B vitamins is required, vitamin C is synthesized in the cat & dog. Deficiency may occur (because they are not stored) in conditions of excessive water loss like polyuria, diarrhea and GI disorders that alter intestinal flora
• Synthetic and naturally made vitamins are used by the body in the same way.
• Commercial pet foods contain vitamin supplementation (too hard to balance with ingredient sources).
• It's unnecessary (unwise) to supplement if feeding a commercial diet.

Vitamin A

• Vitamin A is sourced from = animal products, plants contain provitamin A (carotenoids).
• It's is needed for normal functioning in vision, bone growth, reproduction, tooth development & maintenance of epithelial cells
• Vitamin A deficiencies – lesions in the epithelium (infection), repro problems, night blindness
• Excesses (improper diet or over supplemented) can lead to skeletal malformation, spontaneous fractures & internal bleeding
• Cats require a Vitamin A, sourced from animal tissue of carnivores and found in fish, organ meats (such as liver), dairy products, and eggs.

Vitamin D

• Cats & dogs cannot use sunlight like humans (indoors, dark skin, thick fur).
• Regulates calcium & phosphorus metabolism.
• Source - harvested plants, not living plant tissue.
• Functions – aids in intestinal absorption, mobilization, retention and bone deposition of Ca & P, mineralization & remodeling of bone.
• Deficiency = rickets, osteoporosis, enlarged costochondral junctions.
• Toxicity = hypercalcemia, soft tissue calcification and death fish oils are high in vitamin D.

Vitamin E

• Function – antioxidant, protects vitamin A from oxidation
• Vitamin E is used as a preservative in pet foods.
• Deficiencies = dogs - degenerative skeletal muscle (weakness), impaired sperm production, failure of gestation. In cats – steatitis, myocarditis, myositis of skeletal muscle.
• Sources = only from plants (vegetable oils and green leaves)

Vitamin K

• Vitamin K is fat soluble and can be absorbed or synthesized.
• Source includes: green leafy plants (spinach, kale, cabbage & cauliflower), animal source (liver, egg, fish) some synthesized in large intestine (coprophagy increases vitamin K absorption in dogs).
• Function = blood clotting and regulates bony growth.
• Deficiency - rare unless ingested rat poison (spontaneous bleeding), malabsorption diseases.
• Toxicity - only if vitamin K treatment is given IV instead of SQ or orally.

B Complex Vitamins

• B vitamins are Involved in converting food to energy. Cell maintenance & blood cell synthesis.

Vitamin B1

• Source - brewer's yeast, whole grains, organ meats & egg yolk
• Progressively destroyed by cooking.
• Deficiency occurs if food containing Thiaminases is consumed, (antagonist) such as raw fish, shellfish, bacteria, yeast fungi. Thiaminases is destroyed by cooking.
• Sources – oilseeds, egg yolks, alfalfa meal, liver & yeast
• Deficiency - feeding raw egg whites and oral antibiotic use. Poor growth, dermatitis, lethargy

Vitamin B2

• dairy Source - dairy products, organ & muscle meat, eggs, green plants & yeast.
• Deficiency - uncommon, dermatitis, erythema, weight loss, cataracts

Vitamin B3

• Sources - yeast, animal & fish by-products, cereals, legumes & oilseeds

Vitamin B6

• Sources - meats, whole grains, vegetables & nuts

Vitamin B5

• Commonly derived from plant and animal produce
• Destruction of B5 can occur during the freezing, canning & refining processes

Vitamin B9

• Sources - leafy vegetables, organ meats & egg yolks
• Deficiencies - poor weight gain, anaemia, and leukocytopenia

Vitamin B12

• Sources - organ meats, fish & dairy products.
• Excess intakes are stored in the liver

Vitamin C

• Vitamin exists as aborbic acid
• Can be synthesized by plants and most animals including dog & cat (not human or guinea pig)
• Function - antioxidant and free radical scavenger, drug & steroid metabolism, electron transport in cells, in larger doses aids immune function & protects against carcinogens).
• Source - synthesized from glucose
• Deficiency and toxicity has not be seen in dogs has cats

Minerals

• Minerals make about 1% of an animal body.
• These are essential for correct growth and function of body cells
• There can more then 18 essential minerals in dogs & cats body
• Minerals can be Classifed in 2 groups:
  • Macrominerals – requirements expressed in % - Eg. Ca, P, K, Na, Mg & Cl
    • Microminerals – requirements expressed in ppm (parts per million, or 1 mg / kg diet) - Eg. Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Mn, Se

Macro Minerals

• Macro minerals are Responsible for maintaining acid-base balance, transmembrane potentials, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, and structural integrity Macro Minerals include Calcium - The calcium functions relate directly to the skeleton & absorption regulated by vitamin D.
  • Deficiencies are rare (but are only prevalent in animals fed only TABLE scraps or an all meat diet) that can lead to bone loss & fractures.
  • Sources Meat meal (bone content), soybean & flaxseed meal Phosphorus - Is essential for bone & teeth growth, RNA & DNA. -Deficiency = weakness, ataxia (seizures).
• Sources = meats, eggs & milk products Magnesium - Facilitates Metabolism of carbs & lipids, protein synthesis. - Deficiency = weakness, ataxia (seizures). _ Excess = struvite crystals & stones.
• Sources = bone meals, oilseeds, unrefined grains &fibre (wheat, bran, beet pulp) Sodium & Chloride
• Major electrolytes. Sources = fish, eggs, milk protein, poultry by-product meal.
• Off balance: Neuro, digestive, repro issues

Micro Minerals

• lodine is a necessary component to thyroid hormone.

• Iron is an important component of hemoglobin and myoglobin

• Cobalt is a component to Vitamin B12

• The functions of Copper, Zinc and Iron include

  • Metabolism of carb, lipid & protein, skin, skin growth, maintenance function.
  • Sources including meats, legumes, whole grains, nuts, shellfish and seeds

• Micro minerals -protects cell membranes. No deficiency or excess reported and can be sourced from fish, egg and liver

• Iodine - assists with synthesis of hormones (thyroid), thermoregulation, reproduction, growth, muscle function so sourced from fish, eggs, iodized salt, poultry by-product meal.

• Chromium - metabolism of carb & lipids, blood glucose levels (enhances activity of insulin) so sourced from liver, brewer's yeast & whole grains

• Energy Producing Nutrients - Carbohydrates, Fats & Proteins

• The formula to work out the units of measure for each of these =

• Kilocalorie or kcal - 1kcal = 1000 calories

• Non-Energy Producing Nutrients - Water, Vitamins & Minerals